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Fragrance Terms
- Thread starter churchilllafemme
- Start date
I am presently working on a scent I call “NYC Taxi”. It has top notes of garlic and curry, a middle of mildew, and a base of human fear pheromones.
So true
That probably describes my hamper as well
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Bitter Orange: Neroli, Petitgrain, Orange Blossom, and Bigarade
The tree from which these fragrance materials are derived is Citrus aurantium (or bigaradier) var. amara, commonly called the bitter orange tree (also known as the 'Seville orange tree' due to the fact that the city of Seville has many of them and because the city was the center of Moorish culture when the trees were first brought into Europe from Arabia in the 9th century). Perfumers call it the 'pig of perfumery' because nearly every part of the tree provides a useful material.
Bitter orange trees, native to Italy, belong in a unique order that bears fruit while at the same time blossoming. It is an evergreen tree which grows up to 10 meters tall and has thick, glossy leaves and thorns. The orange-colored fruit rind covers a very bitter flesh which is suited in the culinary world solely for marmalade or other 'spoon sweets' and as a more minor flavoring ingredient. The fruits only turn their characteristic bright color in a temperate Mediterranean climate: Spain, Greece, and California; those growing in hotter tropical climates, such as Florida, Egypt, Ghana, eastern Africa, and western India, retain a yellow-green tinge. The trees are also grown commercially in France and even in the Himalayas.
Individual processing methods of the tree parts produce different fragrance materials: neroli, orange blossom absolute, biagarade, and petitgrain. Cold-pressing the fruit peel yields bigarade, the essential oil (or 'zest') of the bitter orange; distilling the twigs produces petitgrain (the same method giving petitgrain from other citrus trees, such as lemon petitgrain and lime petitgrain). Steam distillation of the white blossoms provides neroli, while the same flowers can yield orange blossom absolute when treated with solvents to extract their essence. If the leaves, twigs and flowers are distilled together, the result is a combination, "petitgrain sur le fleur." Petitgrain water absolute or eau de brouts is the equivalent of orange flower water absolute and is obtained as a by-product from petitgrain bigarade oil. It enhances the 'naturalness' of other fragrances such as jasmine, neroli, ylang-ylang, and gardenia. It should be remembered that the different bitter orange materials are often used combined together in different proportions in commercial fragrances, the differing balances producing quite different characters.
The individual bitter orange materials:
Neroli
At the end of the 17th century, Anne Marie Orsini (Anna Maria de la Tremoille), duchess of Bracciano and princess of Nerola, Italy, introduced the essence of bitter orange tree as a fashionable fragrance by using it to perfume her wardrobe, her gloves, and her bath. She is said to have been first person to distill orange flowers to produce the essential oil. Today neroli is one of the most widely used floral oils in perfumery. Its nontoxic, nonirritant, non-sensitizing, and non-phototoxic properties make it an extremely useful substance. It blends well with any citrus oil, with various floral absolutes, and with most of the synthetic components available on the market. Neroli is sweet, honeyed, and somewhat metallic. It has a sharp, delicate aroma, with a pleasantly bitter top note; a floral-herbal, green body; and a floral, orange flower dry-out. Commercial neroli oil is made in North Africa, France, Italy, and North America, the best oil coming from Tunisia.
In the hands of different perfumers, neroli can be heady or subtle, sophisticated or innocent, wanton or sweet. Pure neroli is described as being "prim and proper," but its more flamboyant expression is encouraged and colored heavily by the other scent materials with which it is mixed.
Neroli essential oil is also commonly used in aromatherapy and as a massage oil. It is thought to have antidepressant, sedative, antibacterial, and antispasmodic effects. In addition, neroli oil is used in food flavorings and is reputed to be one of the ingredients in the top-secret recipe for the Coca-Cola soft drink.
Well-known neroli fragrances:
Annick Goutal Néroli
Chloé Eau de Fleurs Neroli
4711 Eau de Cologne
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino
Guerlain Flora Nerolia
L'Occitane Notre Flore Neroli
Creed Neroli Sauvage
Atelier Cologne Grand Neroli Cologne Absolue
Diptyque L'Eau de Neroli
Czech & Speake Neroli
Castle Forbes Neroli
Atkinsons Scilly Neroli
Bronnley Lemon & Neroli
Carolina Herrera Neroli Boheme
Hermès Eau de Néroli Doré
Jo Malone Basil & Neroli
...and many others
Orange Blossom
Orange blossom is more indolic, deeper, sweeter, and warmer than neroli, but also delicate and fresh. Intoxicating and heady, it is a long-lasting odor, closely resembling the natural scent of fresh bitter orange blossoms. Its fragrance is not unlike that of jasmine (with which it shares some chemical components such as methyl anthranilate), somewhat less intensely floral but fresher. Orange blossom absolute is used in many different types of fragrances and especially in colognes, chypres, ambers, mixed floral bouquets, and heavy orientals. It beautifully complements all other citrusy notes and acts as a natural fixative for other components, allowing the original composition to last longer while keeping its true fragrance.
Orange blossom fragrances:
L'Artisan Fleur d'Oranger Harvest Edition or Seville À L’Aube
Jo Malone Orange Blossom
Prada Infusion de Fleurs d'Oranger
Le Labo Fleur D'Oranger 27, Neroli 36, and Tubereuse 40
Serge Lutens Fleurs D'Oranger
Yardley Orange Blossom
Jean Paul Gaultier Fleur du Mâle
Dior Fahrenheit 32
Petitgrain
Petitgrain, more similar to neroli than to orange blossom, is the most woody-herbaceous of the bitter orange tree materials and somewhat more bitter than the others except for bigarade. It has an overtly masculine edge and is often used in men's fragrances.
Fragrances with dominant petitgrain:
Miller Harris Le Petit Grain
Comme des Garçons Energy C Grapefruit
Dior Addict
Joe Malone Osmanthus Blossom
Mugler Cologne
Antonio Puig Depende del Color de las Roses
Hermès Eau d'Orange Douce
Azzaro Aqua Cèdre Blanc and Pour Homme Summer Edition 2013
Penhaligon Castile
Armani Prive Oranger Alhambra
Vera Wang for Men
G.F. Trumper Astor
Acqua di Parma Acqua Nobile Gelsomino and Blu Mediterraneo
Creed Silver Mountain Water
Dolce & Gabbana Velvet Bergamot
Bigarade
Bigarade, a blending of sweetness and the most pronounced bitterness, produces the characteristic and striking scent and flavor of marmalade.
Fragrances with a prominent bigarade note:
Frédéric Malle Cologne Bigarade or Bigarade Concentree
Creed Citrus Bigarrade
Nina Ricci Bigarade
Durance en Provence Bigarade Cashmere
Fragonard Bigarade Jasmin
L'Occitane en Provence Thé Vert & Bigarade
Parfums 137 Bigarade
The tree from which these fragrance materials are derived is Citrus aurantium (or bigaradier) var. amara, commonly called the bitter orange tree (also known as the 'Seville orange tree' due to the fact that the city of Seville has many of them and because the city was the center of Moorish culture when the trees were first brought into Europe from Arabia in the 9th century). Perfumers call it the 'pig of perfumery' because nearly every part of the tree provides a useful material.
Bitter orange trees, native to Italy, belong in a unique order that bears fruit while at the same time blossoming. It is an evergreen tree which grows up to 10 meters tall and has thick, glossy leaves and thorns. The orange-colored fruit rind covers a very bitter flesh which is suited in the culinary world solely for marmalade or other 'spoon sweets' and as a more minor flavoring ingredient. The fruits only turn their characteristic bright color in a temperate Mediterranean climate: Spain, Greece, and California; those growing in hotter tropical climates, such as Florida, Egypt, Ghana, eastern Africa, and western India, retain a yellow-green tinge. The trees are also grown commercially in France and even in the Himalayas.
Individual processing methods of the tree parts produce different fragrance materials: neroli, orange blossom absolute, biagarade, and petitgrain. Cold-pressing the fruit peel yields bigarade, the essential oil (or 'zest') of the bitter orange; distilling the twigs produces petitgrain (the same method giving petitgrain from other citrus trees, such as lemon petitgrain and lime petitgrain). Steam distillation of the white blossoms provides neroli, while the same flowers can yield orange blossom absolute when treated with solvents to extract their essence. If the leaves, twigs and flowers are distilled together, the result is a combination, "petitgrain sur le fleur." Petitgrain water absolute or eau de brouts is the equivalent of orange flower water absolute and is obtained as a by-product from petitgrain bigarade oil. It enhances the 'naturalness' of other fragrances such as jasmine, neroli, ylang-ylang, and gardenia. It should be remembered that the different bitter orange materials are often used combined together in different proportions in commercial fragrances, the differing balances producing quite different characters.
The individual bitter orange materials:
Neroli
At the end of the 17th century, Anne Marie Orsini (Anna Maria de la Tremoille), duchess of Bracciano and princess of Nerola, Italy, introduced the essence of bitter orange tree as a fashionable fragrance by using it to perfume her wardrobe, her gloves, and her bath. She is said to have been first person to distill orange flowers to produce the essential oil. Today neroli is one of the most widely used floral oils in perfumery. Its nontoxic, nonirritant, non-sensitizing, and non-phototoxic properties make it an extremely useful substance. It blends well with any citrus oil, with various floral absolutes, and with most of the synthetic components available on the market. Neroli is sweet, honeyed, and somewhat metallic. It has a sharp, delicate aroma, with a pleasantly bitter top note; a floral-herbal, green body; and a floral, orange flower dry-out. Commercial neroli oil is made in North Africa, France, Italy, and North America, the best oil coming from Tunisia.
In the hands of different perfumers, neroli can be heady or subtle, sophisticated or innocent, wanton or sweet. Pure neroli is described as being "prim and proper," but its more flamboyant expression is encouraged and colored heavily by the other scent materials with which it is mixed.
Neroli essential oil is also commonly used in aromatherapy and as a massage oil. It is thought to have antidepressant, sedative, antibacterial, and antispasmodic effects. In addition, neroli oil is used in food flavorings and is reputed to be one of the ingredients in the top-secret recipe for the Coca-Cola soft drink.
Well-known neroli fragrances:
Annick Goutal Néroli
Chloé Eau de Fleurs Neroli
4711 Eau de Cologne
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino
Guerlain Flora Nerolia
L'Occitane Notre Flore Neroli
Creed Neroli Sauvage
Atelier Cologne Grand Neroli Cologne Absolue
Diptyque L'Eau de Neroli
Czech & Speake Neroli
Castle Forbes Neroli
Atkinsons Scilly Neroli
Bronnley Lemon & Neroli
Carolina Herrera Neroli Boheme
Hermès Eau de Néroli Doré
Jo Malone Basil & Neroli
...and many others
Orange Blossom
Orange blossom is more indolic, deeper, sweeter, and warmer than neroli, but also delicate and fresh. Intoxicating and heady, it is a long-lasting odor, closely resembling the natural scent of fresh bitter orange blossoms. Its fragrance is not unlike that of jasmine (with which it shares some chemical components such as methyl anthranilate), somewhat less intensely floral but fresher. Orange blossom absolute is used in many different types of fragrances and especially in colognes, chypres, ambers, mixed floral bouquets, and heavy orientals. It beautifully complements all other citrusy notes and acts as a natural fixative for other components, allowing the original composition to last longer while keeping its true fragrance.
Orange blossom fragrances:
L'Artisan Fleur d'Oranger Harvest Edition or Seville À L’Aube
Jo Malone Orange Blossom
Prada Infusion de Fleurs d'Oranger
Le Labo Fleur D'Oranger 27, Neroli 36, and Tubereuse 40
Serge Lutens Fleurs D'Oranger
Yardley Orange Blossom
Jean Paul Gaultier Fleur du Mâle
Dior Fahrenheit 32
Petitgrain
Petitgrain, more similar to neroli than to orange blossom, is the most woody-herbaceous of the bitter orange tree materials and somewhat more bitter than the others except for bigarade. It has an overtly masculine edge and is often used in men's fragrances.
Fragrances with dominant petitgrain:
Miller Harris Le Petit Grain
Comme des Garçons Energy C Grapefruit
Dior Addict
Joe Malone Osmanthus Blossom
Mugler Cologne
Antonio Puig Depende del Color de las Roses
Hermès Eau d'Orange Douce
Azzaro Aqua Cèdre Blanc and Pour Homme Summer Edition 2013
Penhaligon Castile
Armani Prive Oranger Alhambra
Vera Wang for Men
G.F. Trumper Astor
Acqua di Parma Acqua Nobile Gelsomino and Blu Mediterraneo
Creed Silver Mountain Water
Dolce & Gabbana Velvet Bergamot
Bigarade
Bigarade, a blending of sweetness and the most pronounced bitterness, produces the characteristic and striking scent and flavor of marmalade.
Fragrances with a prominent bigarade note:
Frédéric Malle Cologne Bigarade or Bigarade Concentree
Creed Citrus Bigarrade
Nina Ricci Bigarade
Durance en Provence Bigarade Cashmere
Fragonard Bigarade Jasmin
L'Occitane en Provence Thé Vert & Bigarade
Parfums 137 Bigarade
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Sandalwood
Sandalwood is a classic fragrance. It has an Oriental woody-floral odor profile, creamy, smooth, soft, and sensual. As a single fragrance, sandalwood is sweet, green, and nutty in its top aspects and warm and rich in later phases. It blends well with almost all oils, and it pairs well with floral or other wood scents such as violet, rose, orange blossom, jasmine, ylang-ylang, cypress, patchouli, and oakmoss. It frequently is combined with musk, amber, tea, cumin, and spices such as cinnamon, clary sage, coriander, fennel, pepper, and clove. It complements and balances frankincense and myrrh especially well. Like vetiver and amber, it is used primarily as a base note for perfumes in the Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Chypre families. It lacks the sharpness of rosewood, cedarwood, and vetiver, and to some noses it is perceived as animalic. At higher concentrations, sandalwood can overpower other components of a composition, but at lower levels it adds softness, fullness, and roundness, as well as acting as a fixative for more volatile head note ingredients, enhancing their longevity.
Initially during the Georgian era of perfumery (ca. 1714-1835), sandalwood was considered to be a masculine scent, but in 1796 the perfumer James Floris developed Staphanotis, a feminine fragrance that blended base notes of sandalwood and musk with orange blossom, staphanotis, and lily of the valley. Subsequently sandalwood has become much more popular in feminine perfumes, used in the base of almost half of them produced since that time.
The name comes from the Sanskrit chandanam (also meaning 'soothing') or sandanam in Tamil. Sandalwood is a medium-sized parasitic evergreen tree (getting nutrients from other trees in its early stages) with slender drooping branches and brown or red bark. The leaves are 3-4 cm long and elliptic, and the small unscented flowers are numerous and pale straw to brownish-purple. The tree produces fruit, and birds disperse its seeds. It grows relatively slowly and can live up to 100 years. The wood is hard and fine-grained, with the sapwood pale green or white and odorless and the heartwood yellowish-brown and strongly scented. The concentration of fragrant oil increases with the tree's age, and unlike many other aromatic woods, it retains its fragrance for decades if stored properly.
Indian sandalwood (Santalum album, sometimes called 'East Indian sandalwood' since colonial times) is thought to be indigenous to southern India and East Timor and introduced to Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Australia, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands. It belongs to the family of woods that includes rosewood, cedar, and cinnamon tree. Other Santalum species are native to many other regions. The highest quality tree has been Mysore white sandalwood from southern India and Tamil Nadu, now reduced almost to extinction by overharvesting. At one time 70-90% of the world's sandalwood oil production was in India, but the majority now comes from Australia. All sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal now are government-owned, but despite some measures of government protection, illegal logging and trading continue on a large scale (partly due to law enforcement corruption), as does associated clandestine dilution, which makes the oil less desirable.
Native Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum), a different species with a sharper, more resinous, and earthy but still quite pleasant odor, has replaced S. album for most perfumery. Production of Australian oil peaked in 2009 and has continued at significant levels. However, with increasing use of synthetic sandalwood substitutes in perfumery and personal care products, a growing proportion of Australia's natural oil production has been diverted to the chewing tobacco industry.
Overall, there are at least 25 species in the genus Santalum. New Caledonian sandalwood (S. austrocaledonicum), growing on that archipelago and on Vanuatu, produces a very high-quality oil that is quite similar to the Indian oil. Species grown in Hawaii also have been of high quality and were actively exploited in the late 18th and early 19th centuries until the tree supply finally dwindled. Others that have been used intermittently include red sandalwood, false sandalwood, camwood, and bastard sandalwood. Typically they lose their aroma more quickly than the Indian or Australian species. African sandalwood and the so-called 'American sandalwood' or sea torchwood have nothing in common botanically with S. album, and their oils are chemically quite different; but they are several times cheaper than Santalum species, and although their oils differ considerably in smell for most people, they are similar enough to have been used, sometimes surreptitiously, in products called 'sandalwood,' especially niche products.
Sandalwood essential oil is most often obtained from the wood through steam distillation. It can also be extracted less efficiently through water distillation, solvent extraction, and vacuum co-distillation. Because it can regenerate from the stump, the tree was cut down for harvesting in the past, but now it more often is completely uprooted during the rainy season. Consequently the oil can be distilled from all the wood, including the trunk, branches, and roots, in order maximize profit. The wood is ground to powder and soaked in water for about 48 hours before distillation. The four-step steam-distillation process (boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation) takes 18-36 hours to complete, longer than nearly all other essential oils.
In the past, only trees older than 40-80 years and at full maturity, with the highest concentration of fragrance in the heartwood, were used for oil, but today the average age of trees commercially harvested is 8-16 years (or a minimum of 15 years in Australia). The pale gold-brown, moderately viscous oil retains fragrance for a long time when stored. The source of the fragrance is santalol, in its alpha and beta isomers. Australian sandalwood oil contains 35-40% santalol, while Indian sandalwood has had 70-90%, with the superior Mysore type having a minimum of 90%. Eugenols provide a minor additional 'smoke-dried' aspect, and carbonyl compounds add flowery undertones. The overall sandalwood oil composition depends on the species, region grown, soil location, age of tree, and possibly the season of harvest and extraction process, and thus there can be significant variability.
The S. album species population is now recognized as 'vulnerable,' and since 2004 Indian sandalwood has been listed on the IUCN Red List. Other than the oil produced by its own governmental growers, India has banned extraction of oil and export of sandalwood materials. Efforts are underway internationally to save the trees from extinction and regenerate S. album production. In addition to the subsidized government farming in the Indian state of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Indian sandalwood, including the Mysore type, now is grown on large plantations in western Australia alongside the indigenous Australian variety. With newer techniques of irrigation and fertilization, tree growth has been boosted so that a 15-year-old tree has the same oil levels as a 30-year-old tree did in the past. Australian producers in Kununurra are increasingly planting Indian trees, but whether establishment and growth of new plantations there can significantly restore the groves as a source of oil remains to be seen.
With decreasing stocks of Mysore and other Indian sandalwood, perfumers have had to reformulate their perfume products, some of which - especially the most renowned - were purported at one time to contain up to 40% natural sandalwood. Scientists have tried unsuccessfully for decades to develop protocols for the commercial synthesis of organic sandalwood oil, but efforts continue with new developments in biotechnology that raise hopes for the future. Companies also have been trying to find synthetic substitutes that imitate the chemical structure and scent of the natural oil. The first substitute molecule was discovered in Germany in 1947, with subsequent further evolution, including development of Santalidol in the Soviet Union. Santalidol, a mixture of several substances with similar structures, was mass produced commercially beginning in 1956. Since then, variations of it having somewhat differing ingredient ratios and smells have been marketed, with Sandalore and Bagdanol being the most common by the 1970s, as use of natural sandalwood oil began to decrease. The alternative probably best-known historically is Sandenol, whose chemical structure is most closely related to the santalol isomers and which was said to have an aroma quite similar to that of the natural oil. Among other widely used alternates are Javanol, Polysantol, Firsantol, Levosandol, Ebanol, Fleursandol, and HomoPolysantol. Javanol, Ebanol, Sandela, Santaliff, and Santalore have been claimed by their users to be the strongest and most true to natural sandalwood, but there is disagreement, and none can exactly match the complexity and richness of true sandalwood. Due to its unique technical properties (lasting power, strength, diffusivity, and ability to mix well with other compounds), Javanol from Givaudan has become the favorite among modern perfumers. A major advantage of synthetic oils over the natural form is that they provide consistency of composition and quality from batch to batch.
The documented use of sandalwood goes back about 4000 years to India, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Ramayana, an Indian epic poem written in the 4th century BCE, first mentions the ancient burning of sandalwood slivers as incense. When sandalwood was abundant, especially in the 15th to 17th centuries, many temples and other structures were built with its timber, as were sculptures and furniture. In Egypt, it was an embalming ingredient and was believed to release the souls of the dead in reincarnation. It has been highly prized for wood carving, including creation of religious icons, rosaries, fans, sewing boxes, and toys, and this still is done using wood from trimmings and immature trees killed by disease. Sandalwood has been used in solid perfumes for centuries by Arab perfumers. In the 18th century it became a popular ingredient in European perfumes and cosmetics, and it also was used then to scent Spanish Córdoban leather.
Sandalwood oil and wood have been a part of many different religious practices, including Hinduism, Sufism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Shamanism, and Taoism. The wood of the tree is powdered and made into a paste that is integral to many rituals and ceremonies, and it is used to decorate icons and altars. The paste and oil (applied to the forehead, neck, or chest) and the smoke from burning sandalwood incense have been thought to calm and focus the mind for meditation and prayer. Indian paintings show images of snakes curling around sandalwood trees, representing legends in which the tree is said to release such a beautiful scent that serpents are charmed by it.
The essential oil is used in aromatherapy for its stress-reducing, calming, and soothing properties, and it is considered to be an aphrodisiac, especially in massage oil. It is a natural astringent, firming and toning the skin. It has been used for centuries in Chinese and Indian Ayurvedic medicine as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, analgesic, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, hypotensive, and sedative. Sandalwood is claimed to be beneficial for rheumatism and gout, and it may have benefits for treating anxiety and depression and even cancers. Synthetic sandalwoods have been shown to stimulate skin OR2AT3 receptors, which may promote wound healing and scalp hair growth.
Aboriginal Australians eat sandalwood seed kernels, nuts, and fruit, and early European settlers there used the fruit in making jams, chutneys, and pies. Modern chefs have experimented with the nut as a substitute for macadamia, almond, and hazelnut, especially in Southeast Asian-style cuisine. The oil and some of the synthetic sandalwood analogues are used as a flavoring agent in candy, ice cream, baked goods, puddings, gelatin, and beverages. Due to its preservative and antiseptic properties, sandalwood often is included in soaps, other beauty products, candles, air fresheners, and industrial products. Finally, because of its low fluorescence and optimal refractive index, sandalwood oil has been used as an immersion oil for microscopy. There has not been extensive research conducted on the safety of sandalwood oil, but because there have not been any significant adverse effects documented in the scientific literature, it generally is considered quite safe and continues to be used commonly.
Many sandalwood perfume products have 'sandalwood,' 'sandalo,' or 'santal' in their names and can be identified easily. Other scents without those words in their names but with significant a sandalwood presence and usually designated as masculine include the following:
Aesop Marrakech Intense
Amouage Interlude, Epic, Memoir
Aramis Havana
Balenciaga Eau
Blanche Byredo Blanche
Burberry Mr. Burberry
By Killian Sacred Wood
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria, Contradiction
Cartier Declaration d'un Soir
Caswell Massey Tricorn
Chanel Egoiste, Bleu
Christian Dior Leather Oud, Patchouli Imperial, Vetiver
Comme des Garcons Concrete, Wonderwood
Creed Himalaya, Bois du Portugal, Silver Mountain Water
D.R. Harris Marlborough
Davidoff Cool Water
Dior Fahrenheit
Diptyque Tam Dao
Dolce & Gabbana D&G
Donna Karan Chaos
Dunhill 51.3 N
Fabi per Lui
Fragonard Zizanie
Fulton & Roark Shackleford
Gucci Envy, Rush
Guerlain Habit Rouge, l'Eau Boisee, l'Instant, Heritage, Arsene Lupin Voyou
Guy Laroche Drakka Noir
Hermes Bel Ami
Histoire de Parfums 1725 Casanova
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jill Sander Man III
L'Acqua di Fiori Tennis
Laurent Mazzone Black Oud
Le Cherche Midi
Lush Smuggler's Soul
Maître Parfumeur et Gantier Grain de Plaisir
Maurer & Wirtz Marrakech Tale
Oscar de la Renta pour Lui
Pal Zileri Sartoriale
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet
Prada l'Homme
Profumum Roma Olibanum
Proraso Red
Revillon pour Homme
Rochas Macassar
Rosendo Mateu No. 1, No. 6
Scorpio Gold
Shaik Gold
Stetson Preferred Stock, Caliber
Tom Ford Exxtreme, Noir
Tom Frank Black 1
Valentino Noir Absolu
Van Heusen
Versace Black Jeans
Xerjoff Richwood
Yves St. Laurent Jazz
Zadig & Voltaire This is Him
Zara For Him 2018, No Night
Sandalwood is a classic fragrance. It has an Oriental woody-floral odor profile, creamy, smooth, soft, and sensual. As a single fragrance, sandalwood is sweet, green, and nutty in its top aspects and warm and rich in later phases. It blends well with almost all oils, and it pairs well with floral or other wood scents such as violet, rose, orange blossom, jasmine, ylang-ylang, cypress, patchouli, and oakmoss. It frequently is combined with musk, amber, tea, cumin, and spices such as cinnamon, clary sage, coriander, fennel, pepper, and clove. It complements and balances frankincense and myrrh especially well. Like vetiver and amber, it is used primarily as a base note for perfumes in the Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Chypre families. It lacks the sharpness of rosewood, cedarwood, and vetiver, and to some noses it is perceived as animalic. At higher concentrations, sandalwood can overpower other components of a composition, but at lower levels it adds softness, fullness, and roundness, as well as acting as a fixative for more volatile head note ingredients, enhancing their longevity.
Initially during the Georgian era of perfumery (ca. 1714-1835), sandalwood was considered to be a masculine scent, but in 1796 the perfumer James Floris developed Staphanotis, a feminine fragrance that blended base notes of sandalwood and musk with orange blossom, staphanotis, and lily of the valley. Subsequently sandalwood has become much more popular in feminine perfumes, used in the base of almost half of them produced since that time.
The name comes from the Sanskrit chandanam (also meaning 'soothing') or sandanam in Tamil. Sandalwood is a medium-sized parasitic evergreen tree (getting nutrients from other trees in its early stages) with slender drooping branches and brown or red bark. The leaves are 3-4 cm long and elliptic, and the small unscented flowers are numerous and pale straw to brownish-purple. The tree produces fruit, and birds disperse its seeds. It grows relatively slowly and can live up to 100 years. The wood is hard and fine-grained, with the sapwood pale green or white and odorless and the heartwood yellowish-brown and strongly scented. The concentration of fragrant oil increases with the tree's age, and unlike many other aromatic woods, it retains its fragrance for decades if stored properly.
Indian sandalwood (Santalum album, sometimes called 'East Indian sandalwood' since colonial times) is thought to be indigenous to southern India and East Timor and introduced to Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Australia, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands. It belongs to the family of woods that includes rosewood, cedar, and cinnamon tree. Other Santalum species are native to many other regions. The highest quality tree has been Mysore white sandalwood from southern India and Tamil Nadu, now reduced almost to extinction by overharvesting. At one time 70-90% of the world's sandalwood oil production was in India, but the majority now comes from Australia. All sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal now are government-owned, but despite some measures of government protection, illegal logging and trading continue on a large scale (partly due to law enforcement corruption), as does associated clandestine dilution, which makes the oil less desirable.
Native Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum), a different species with a sharper, more resinous, and earthy but still quite pleasant odor, has replaced S. album for most perfumery. Production of Australian oil peaked in 2009 and has continued at significant levels. However, with increasing use of synthetic sandalwood substitutes in perfumery and personal care products, a growing proportion of Australia's natural oil production has been diverted to the chewing tobacco industry.
Overall, there are at least 25 species in the genus Santalum. New Caledonian sandalwood (S. austrocaledonicum), growing on that archipelago and on Vanuatu, produces a very high-quality oil that is quite similar to the Indian oil. Species grown in Hawaii also have been of high quality and were actively exploited in the late 18th and early 19th centuries until the tree supply finally dwindled. Others that have been used intermittently include red sandalwood, false sandalwood, camwood, and bastard sandalwood. Typically they lose their aroma more quickly than the Indian or Australian species. African sandalwood and the so-called 'American sandalwood' or sea torchwood have nothing in common botanically with S. album, and their oils are chemically quite different; but they are several times cheaper than Santalum species, and although their oils differ considerably in smell for most people, they are similar enough to have been used, sometimes surreptitiously, in products called 'sandalwood,' especially niche products.
Sandalwood essential oil is most often obtained from the wood through steam distillation. It can also be extracted less efficiently through water distillation, solvent extraction, and vacuum co-distillation. Because it can regenerate from the stump, the tree was cut down for harvesting in the past, but now it more often is completely uprooted during the rainy season. Consequently the oil can be distilled from all the wood, including the trunk, branches, and roots, in order maximize profit. The wood is ground to powder and soaked in water for about 48 hours before distillation. The four-step steam-distillation process (boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation) takes 18-36 hours to complete, longer than nearly all other essential oils.
In the past, only trees older than 40-80 years and at full maturity, with the highest concentration of fragrance in the heartwood, were used for oil, but today the average age of trees commercially harvested is 8-16 years (or a minimum of 15 years in Australia). The pale gold-brown, moderately viscous oil retains fragrance for a long time when stored. The source of the fragrance is santalol, in its alpha and beta isomers. Australian sandalwood oil contains 35-40% santalol, while Indian sandalwood has had 70-90%, with the superior Mysore type having a minimum of 90%. Eugenols provide a minor additional 'smoke-dried' aspect, and carbonyl compounds add flowery undertones. The overall sandalwood oil composition depends on the species, region grown, soil location, age of tree, and possibly the season of harvest and extraction process, and thus there can be significant variability.
The S. album species population is now recognized as 'vulnerable,' and since 2004 Indian sandalwood has been listed on the IUCN Red List. Other than the oil produced by its own governmental growers, India has banned extraction of oil and export of sandalwood materials. Efforts are underway internationally to save the trees from extinction and regenerate S. album production. In addition to the subsidized government farming in the Indian state of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Indian sandalwood, including the Mysore type, now is grown on large plantations in western Australia alongside the indigenous Australian variety. With newer techniques of irrigation and fertilization, tree growth has been boosted so that a 15-year-old tree has the same oil levels as a 30-year-old tree did in the past. Australian producers in Kununurra are increasingly planting Indian trees, but whether establishment and growth of new plantations there can significantly restore the groves as a source of oil remains to be seen.
With decreasing stocks of Mysore and other Indian sandalwood, perfumers have had to reformulate their perfume products, some of which - especially the most renowned - were purported at one time to contain up to 40% natural sandalwood. Scientists have tried unsuccessfully for decades to develop protocols for the commercial synthesis of organic sandalwood oil, but efforts continue with new developments in biotechnology that raise hopes for the future. Companies also have been trying to find synthetic substitutes that imitate the chemical structure and scent of the natural oil. The first substitute molecule was discovered in Germany in 1947, with subsequent further evolution, including development of Santalidol in the Soviet Union. Santalidol, a mixture of several substances with similar structures, was mass produced commercially beginning in 1956. Since then, variations of it having somewhat differing ingredient ratios and smells have been marketed, with Sandalore and Bagdanol being the most common by the 1970s, as use of natural sandalwood oil began to decrease. The alternative probably best-known historically is Sandenol, whose chemical structure is most closely related to the santalol isomers and which was said to have an aroma quite similar to that of the natural oil. Among other widely used alternates are Javanol, Polysantol, Firsantol, Levosandol, Ebanol, Fleursandol, and HomoPolysantol. Javanol, Ebanol, Sandela, Santaliff, and Santalore have been claimed by their users to be the strongest and most true to natural sandalwood, but there is disagreement, and none can exactly match the complexity and richness of true sandalwood. Due to its unique technical properties (lasting power, strength, diffusivity, and ability to mix well with other compounds), Javanol from Givaudan has become the favorite among modern perfumers. A major advantage of synthetic oils over the natural form is that they provide consistency of composition and quality from batch to batch.
The documented use of sandalwood goes back about 4000 years to India, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Ramayana, an Indian epic poem written in the 4th century BCE, first mentions the ancient burning of sandalwood slivers as incense. When sandalwood was abundant, especially in the 15th to 17th centuries, many temples and other structures were built with its timber, as were sculptures and furniture. In Egypt, it was an embalming ingredient and was believed to release the souls of the dead in reincarnation. It has been highly prized for wood carving, including creation of religious icons, rosaries, fans, sewing boxes, and toys, and this still is done using wood from trimmings and immature trees killed by disease. Sandalwood has been used in solid perfumes for centuries by Arab perfumers. In the 18th century it became a popular ingredient in European perfumes and cosmetics, and it also was used then to scent Spanish Córdoban leather.
Sandalwood oil and wood have been a part of many different religious practices, including Hinduism, Sufism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Shamanism, and Taoism. The wood of the tree is powdered and made into a paste that is integral to many rituals and ceremonies, and it is used to decorate icons and altars. The paste and oil (applied to the forehead, neck, or chest) and the smoke from burning sandalwood incense have been thought to calm and focus the mind for meditation and prayer. Indian paintings show images of snakes curling around sandalwood trees, representing legends in which the tree is said to release such a beautiful scent that serpents are charmed by it.
The essential oil is used in aromatherapy for its stress-reducing, calming, and soothing properties, and it is considered to be an aphrodisiac, especially in massage oil. It is a natural astringent, firming and toning the skin. It has been used for centuries in Chinese and Indian Ayurvedic medicine as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, analgesic, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, hypotensive, and sedative. Sandalwood is claimed to be beneficial for rheumatism and gout, and it may have benefits for treating anxiety and depression and even cancers. Synthetic sandalwoods have been shown to stimulate skin OR2AT3 receptors, which may promote wound healing and scalp hair growth.
Aboriginal Australians eat sandalwood seed kernels, nuts, and fruit, and early European settlers there used the fruit in making jams, chutneys, and pies. Modern chefs have experimented with the nut as a substitute for macadamia, almond, and hazelnut, especially in Southeast Asian-style cuisine. The oil and some of the synthetic sandalwood analogues are used as a flavoring agent in candy, ice cream, baked goods, puddings, gelatin, and beverages. Due to its preservative and antiseptic properties, sandalwood often is included in soaps, other beauty products, candles, air fresheners, and industrial products. Finally, because of its low fluorescence and optimal refractive index, sandalwood oil has been used as an immersion oil for microscopy. There has not been extensive research conducted on the safety of sandalwood oil, but because there have not been any significant adverse effects documented in the scientific literature, it generally is considered quite safe and continues to be used commonly.
Many sandalwood perfume products have 'sandalwood,' 'sandalo,' or 'santal' in their names and can be identified easily. Other scents without those words in their names but with significant a sandalwood presence and usually designated as masculine include the following:
Aesop Marrakech Intense
Amouage Interlude, Epic, Memoir
Aramis Havana
Balenciaga Eau
Blanche Byredo Blanche
Burberry Mr. Burberry
By Killian Sacred Wood
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria, Contradiction
Cartier Declaration d'un Soir
Caswell Massey Tricorn
Chanel Egoiste, Bleu
Christian Dior Leather Oud, Patchouli Imperial, Vetiver
Comme des Garcons Concrete, Wonderwood
Creed Himalaya, Bois du Portugal, Silver Mountain Water
D.R. Harris Marlborough
Davidoff Cool Water
Dior Fahrenheit
Diptyque Tam Dao
Dolce & Gabbana D&G
Donna Karan Chaos
Dunhill 51.3 N
Fabi per Lui
Fragonard Zizanie
Fulton & Roark Shackleford
Gucci Envy, Rush
Guerlain Habit Rouge, l'Eau Boisee, l'Instant, Heritage, Arsene Lupin Voyou
Guy Laroche Drakka Noir
Hermes Bel Ami
Histoire de Parfums 1725 Casanova
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jill Sander Man III
L'Acqua di Fiori Tennis
Laurent Mazzone Black Oud
Le Cherche Midi
Lush Smuggler's Soul
Maître Parfumeur et Gantier Grain de Plaisir
Maurer & Wirtz Marrakech Tale
Oscar de la Renta pour Lui
Pal Zileri Sartoriale
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet
Prada l'Homme
Profumum Roma Olibanum
Proraso Red
Revillon pour Homme
Rochas Macassar
Rosendo Mateu No. 1, No. 6
Scorpio Gold
Shaik Gold
Stetson Preferred Stock, Caliber
Tom Ford Exxtreme, Noir
Tom Frank Black 1
Valentino Noir Absolu
Van Heusen
Versace Black Jeans
Xerjoff Richwood
Yves St. Laurent Jazz
Zadig & Voltaire This is Him
Zara For Him 2018, No Night
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Lavender
Lavender (Lavandula genus) includes around 40 known species of evergreen, perennial, shrub-like flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. Thought to have originated in the highlands of India, it is native to mountainous zones of Europe and also grows in the United States, Cape Verde and the Canary Islands, across northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, and southwest Asia. Growing to a height of a meter, it has woody branches covered with diversely shaped, narrow, grey-green leaves and small flowers. The flowers are displayed in whorls and held on spikes that rise above the foliage. The flowers generally are blue, violet, or lilac in color in wild species, and occasionally black-purple, pink, white, or yellow. Commercially grown 'true lavender' (L. angustifolia) flowers have a unique pale purple tone that is the source of the lavender color name. Lavender is mainly grown commercially in Bulgaria and France (especially in Haute-Provence, Drôme, and Vaucluse regions) and Italy. China, India, and Russia also grow it, with England, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the U.S. being minor growers. Since the plant cross-pollinates easily, there are over 400 wild variations and numerous commercial hybrids and cultivars. Because cultivated forms are planted worldwide, they are sometimes found growing wild as garden escapees, well beyond their natural ranges, and can be invasive. For example, in Australia, L. stoechas has spread widely and has been declared a noxious weed since 1920; it is also regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.
The names widely used for some species, including 'English lavender,' 'French lavender,' and 'Spanish lavender,' are applied imprecisely. 'English lavender' or 'Old English lavender' is most commonly used for L. angustifolia. 'French lavender' may refer to L. angustifolia, L. stoechas, or L. dentata (although the major lavender crop in France is L. angustifolia); 'Spanish lavender' generally refers to L. stoechas, L. lanata, or L. dentata; and 'Egyptian lavender' usually means L. multifida. Also used is the term 'Dutch lavender,' referring to a class of hybrids called lavandins.
The English word lavender probably comes from Old French lavendre, itself derived from Latin lavare, meaning 'to wash.' Its original name most likely refers to the ancient Roman tradition of using lavender-infused water for bathing. Another possible interpretation stems from the earliest known English name for it, livendula, derived directly from the Latin name for a bluish color.
Lavender was used at least 2500 years ago by the ancient Egyptians, who are believed to have been first to extract the oil for perfumes, incense, and mummification. The Bible refers to lavender as 'spikenard.' The Greeks and Romans used the flowers or oil for cooking, to freshen the air, to scent bath water and clothing, and in sachets when traveling. The Greeks also ingested it to treat insomnia and back aches. In Spain it was listed as an ingredient for making a spiced wine called hippocras. It was used in Medieval times to scent linen and was strewn on the floors of churches and homes to release pleasant a smell when crushed under foot. At that time, women who took in washing for pay were called 'lavenders.' They frequently washed the clothing in lavender water and laid it out to dry on lavender bushes. King Charles VI of France insisted that his pillow always contained lavender so that he could sleep well.
Lavender was introduced into England early in the 17th century, when it initially was used to scent drawers and to stuff quilted jackets and caps. At that time, women wore small lavender pouches in their cleavage to lure suitors, and men used it to flavor snuff. At this time it became a cure-all mentioned in the writings of many English herbalists. It was also used as protection against the Black Plague of 1665 (sometimes worn on the wrists or hung above doors for protection), because it had been noted in the previous century that French glove makers, who were licensed to perfume their products with lavender, generally escaped cholera infection. Plague doctors, hired to treat victims of the pandemic, stuffed lavender into their face masks. This use against the Plague may have had some validity, since the infection was transmitted by fleas, which lavender repels.
It is said that Queen Elizabeth had fresh lavender in vases on her table every day, that she drank lavender tea for migraines, and that she prized lavender conserve (jam); and lavender became popular with the public for use in jams and other foods, as well as being used in teas both medicinally and for its taste. Queen Victoria used a lavender deodorant, and Victorians grew the plant in their gardens. Gypsy travelers of that time sold bunches of lavender on the streets of London to bring people good luck. Fresh lavender was dried and put into muslin bags for wardrobes and used to wash walls and furniture, and lavender bags were stuffed between sheets in linen presses. Lavender was used to repel inspects, to treat lice, as a perfume and a potpourri, in furniture polish and soap, and as a cure-all in household medicine cupboards.
The Shakers, a sect of Quakers, are credited with commercializing lavender in North America and introducing a variety of lavender-based products to the United States and Canada. The Shakers produced lavender medicines, jams, and scented products, and sold them to neighbors and customers outside their religious sect.
Lavender essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of cut flower spikes. The highest quality oil is produced in France, where L. angustifolia grows naturally at altitudes of 600-1500m. Lavender is harvested primarily between late June and September, when flowering has ended and the flower color has become more pale and grey. Harvesting is done either in bulk or by bunches, starting in the morning before the day becomes too hot, usually by hand for perfumery use. The fresh flowers are dried for a short time in sheds and then put into a large-volume vessel. Once filled and packed, the vessel is closed with an air-tight cover. Steam is passed through the contents, vaporizing the essential oil. The steam and oil droplets pass through a serpentine pipe into cold water and are decanted. The oil, less dense than water, floats and is skimmed off.
Distillation is primarily done in small local factories and yields a total of around 100 tons of pure oil each year. In its pure form, lavender oil is colorless to pale yellow and is insoluble in water. Early in the 20th century, most lavender essential oil was produced only in the Grasse region of France. Leading modern producers of lavender oil now are France, Bulgaria, and China. In recent years, around 60% of lavender essential oil has gone to perfumery.
There are four types of lavender essential oil:
True lavender (from L. angustifolia or officinalis), French lavender, used in high-quality perfumes
Maritime lavender (from L. stoechas), more camphorous, used in less expensive fragrances
Lavender aspic (from L. latifolia), also called 'spike oil' and used for toiletries and household products
Lavandin oil (from L. intermedia or lavendula x intermedia), used mainly for inexpensive perfumes and toiletries
When reduced to an absolute (by extraction of the flower buds with a hydrocarbon solvent, followed by ethanol, then cold-filtering and evaporation), lavender is brown to green and slightly viscous and has a more tenacious, distinctive herbal-hay smell reminiscent of natural flowering lavender. The absolute is sweeter but less floral than the essential oil and has a coumarin-like richness. For retail sale, the absolute is usually diluted to 10% in ethanol to make it more affordable and easier to pipette. It is sometimes used in combination with the essential oil in perfumes to provide more complexity. In the past, lavender absolute was produced primarily through enfleurage of the flowers and stems.
Over 100 individual aromatic chemicals have been extracted from lavender oil, the major ones being linalyl acetate (30-55%), linalool (20-35%), tannins (5-10%), and caryophyllene (8%). The relative amounts of these compounds vary considerably among lavender species.
Lavender is one of the most popular essential oils in perfumery and many other industries, especially in the United States. In perfumery, a number of different regional varieties are used. A single variety can produce a range of different aromatic notes depending on the growing region, the altitude at which it was grown, and the distilling techniques. Some lavender oils have a very sweet aroma, while others are distinctively sharp. French lavender (L. angustifolia), for example, smells quite sweet, but Dutch lavender (L. intermedia) has higher levels of camphor and other terpenes and displays a very strong and sharp overtone. In general, lavender's odor profile has a clean floral note, with green, fresh, fruity, spicy, slightly herbaceous-woody, and licorice facets.
Lavender mixes well with almost any floral, herbal, or spicy note. The oil is used mainly in fresh, sweet, and floral fragrances, especially as a top note in fougères. (Lavender was a key note in original Houbigant Fougère Royale (1882), considered the first modern perfume.) The sweeter absolute is often used to offer a sugary, herbaceous, woody tone to a composition. Like the oil, it blends especially well with citruses (especially bergamot, neroli, and orange blossom), rose, geranium, oakmoss, patchouli, peppermint, cinnamon, pines, cedarwood, coumarin, cloves, rosemary, chamomile, basil, and sage. Lavender also mixes well with vanilla, amber, and musk.
Lavender is commonly used in production of colognes for men (with around 90% of masculine compositions now containing it) and lends a heart note to many fragrances, especially vintage creations (e.g. Creed Royal Scottish Lavender and Atkinsons English Lavender in 1910), and a dry and balmy base to more modern ones (such as Hugo Boss Bottled Night). More recently, however, lavender has been used increasingly in compositions for women (and marketed for 'strong, bold, and free women who experiment with their freedom'). Lavender is considered an all-season fragrance, its versatility making it appropriate for either cold or warm weather.
Says perfumer Julie Massé, 'Lavender adds an herby note – but interestingly, by adding it to other fragrance notes you can push it towards 'cool' herby, towards the smell of mint, or you can go in the other direction and push it towards 'hot' herby, almost spicy, like the scent of a hot summer's night.' And perfumer Richard Ibanez adds, 'Lavender adds touches somewhere between reason and heart, and sharp and clear. It brings comfort and freshness and is, in the end, very reassuring.'
Many members of the lavandula genus are cultivated in temperate climates as ornamental plants for garden and landscape use and as culinary herbs. Lavender flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements, and the flowers and buds are included in potpourris and sachet fillings. Dried and sealed in pouches, the flowers can be placed among stored clothing items to deter moths. Before the use of distilled turpentine became common, lavender oil was used as a solvent for oil painting. In toiletries, what is called 'lavender' sometimes is actually an artificial construct of vanilla, musk, and licorice notes. True lavender, however, is used in bath soaps, cleaning products, room deodorizers, candles, and food products.
The plant has culinary uses, adding a floral-sweet flavor to dishes. Culinary lavender is usually an English lavender species (L. angustifolia 'Munstead'). It has a sweet scent with citrus notes and is used as a spice in pastas, savory stews, salads and dressings, and desserts (especially chocolate ones). It is a common ingredient in the combination called Herbes de Provence. The buds and greens are used in black, green, or herbal teas. Lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scone and marshmallows, and lavender nectar (from buds processed by bees) is employed to make monofloral honey. Lavender also can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary. The potency of lavender flowers increases with drying, which necessitates sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste. Lavender buds are sometimes put into sugar for around two weeks to allow the fragrance to transfer, and then the 'lavender sugar' is used in baking. Lavender is frequently used to make tea.
For centuries French lavender has been used in various cultures as a natural remedy and in aromatherapy, mainly to improve mood, reduce anxiety and depression, relieve restlessness or insomnia, and soothe intestinal discomfort. In Asian traditional medicine, it was used for its 'cooling' effect on the heart and mind. It was used for centuries to fill pillows in order to promote a good night's sleep and prevent nightmares. Recipes also have mentioned lavender as a remedy for insect bites and for burns. During World War I, lavender essential oil was used in smelling salts and to disinfect surfaces in hospitals. In the 1930s, French chemist René-Maurice Gattefossé burned his hand in the laboratory and applied lavender oil to it. He was so impressed with the quick healing process that he published a book in which he coined the term 'aromatherapy' for its therapeutic use. At the same time, French biochemist Marguerite Maury developed a method of applying lavender and other oils to the skin with massage, creating the practice of aromatherapy massage that is now used worldwide.
Only the oil is used in massage and aromatherapy, not the absolute. Lavender is also reputed to improve memory recall and work productivity. Lavandin is the form most often associated with aromatherapy products, potpourri, and candles, because it is cheaper to use and easier to obtain. A 2016 study suggested that lavender odorants were associated with reduced mental stress. Although most research has not confirmed the efficacy of lavender in affecting human diseases, limited clinical trials suggest that is has benefit for relieving pain, postnatal perineal discomfort, and hot flashes.
Masculine perfume products that feature lavender include the following:
Ach Brito Lavanda
Acqua di Genova 1853 Anniversario
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana, Colonia
Adidas Adventure (various), Victory League
Adolfo Dominguez Agua (various)
Airness Cool Instinct
American Crew Sport
Amouage Sunshine Man
Annick Goutal l'Eau de Lavande
Antonio Puig Agua Lavanda
Aramis Adventurer
Avon Musk Oxygen
Baldessarini Ambre Eau Fraiche
Bourbon French Lavender
By Kilian A Taste of Heaven
Calvin Klein Eternity
Carolina Herrera 212 (various)
Caron pour un Homme
Cerruti 1881
Chanel Platinum Egoiste
Chopard 1000 Miglia
Crabtree & Evelyn Lavender
Creed Bois du Portugal
Czech & Speake Oxford and Cambridge
Dolce & Gabbana
D.R. Harris Albany, Old English Lavender Water
Dunhill Valensole Lavender
Elizabeth Arden for Men
Elysees Fashion Marconi
Ésika d'Orsay Class
Evterpa Pobeditelyat
Ferrari Pure Lavender
Galimard 1747
George F. Trumper Lavender Water
Giorgio Armani Eau pour Homme, Stronger with You
Guerlain EdP Intense, Héritage
Halston 1976
Houbigant Fougère Royale
Hugo Boss Bottled Night
Jacomo Ambro
JADS International Red Shirt
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Mâle
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Jovan Musk
Lacoste l'Eau
Lanvin l'Homme
Loewe 001 Man
Marciano Guess
Marley Percival
Mauboussin Homme
Mont'Anne My Phone Platinum Luxe
Montblanc Legend
O Boticario Acqua Sensation
l'Occitane Lavender
d'Orsay Arome 3
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Penhaligon's English Fern, Lavandula, Sartorial
Phytoderm Nomad
Prada Luna Rossa, Luna Rossa Carbon, Luna Rossa Extreme
Roberto Cavalli Black
Rochas Moustache
Roja 51
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Imperial
Salvatore Ferragamo F Black
Severnoye Siyanie Solnechnaya Lavanda
Shakespeare Macbeth
Shirley May Black Market
Shulton Night Spice
Style Adventure Sports
Swiss Guard
Taylor of Old Bond Street Luxury Lavender Water
Thierry Mugler A Men (various)
Tom Ford Beau de Jour, Costa Azzurra, Lavender Extreme
Ulric de Varens Lavande
Valentino Very
Vaquero
Victor Lavanda
Yardley English Lavender, Gentleman Legend
Yves St. Laurent La Nuit de l'Homme, Libre, Rive Gauche
Zara Amber Wood, Bergamot & Lavender, Scent #2
There are also very many unisex fragrances with prominent lavender.
Lavender (Lavandula genus) includes around 40 known species of evergreen, perennial, shrub-like flowering plants in the mint family, Lamiaceae. Thought to have originated in the highlands of India, it is native to mountainous zones of Europe and also grows in the United States, Cape Verde and the Canary Islands, across northern and eastern Africa, the Mediterranean, and southwest Asia. Growing to a height of a meter, it has woody branches covered with diversely shaped, narrow, grey-green leaves and small flowers. The flowers are displayed in whorls and held on spikes that rise above the foliage. The flowers generally are blue, violet, or lilac in color in wild species, and occasionally black-purple, pink, white, or yellow. Commercially grown 'true lavender' (L. angustifolia) flowers have a unique pale purple tone that is the source of the lavender color name. Lavender is mainly grown commercially in Bulgaria and France (especially in Haute-Provence, Drôme, and Vaucluse regions) and Italy. China, India, and Russia also grow it, with England, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, and the U.S. being minor growers. Since the plant cross-pollinates easily, there are over 400 wild variations and numerous commercial hybrids and cultivars. Because cultivated forms are planted worldwide, they are sometimes found growing wild as garden escapees, well beyond their natural ranges, and can be invasive. For example, in Australia, L. stoechas has spread widely and has been declared a noxious weed since 1920; it is also regarded as a weed in parts of Spain.
The names widely used for some species, including 'English lavender,' 'French lavender,' and 'Spanish lavender,' are applied imprecisely. 'English lavender' or 'Old English lavender' is most commonly used for L. angustifolia. 'French lavender' may refer to L. angustifolia, L. stoechas, or L. dentata (although the major lavender crop in France is L. angustifolia); 'Spanish lavender' generally refers to L. stoechas, L. lanata, or L. dentata; and 'Egyptian lavender' usually means L. multifida. Also used is the term 'Dutch lavender,' referring to a class of hybrids called lavandins.
The English word lavender probably comes from Old French lavendre, itself derived from Latin lavare, meaning 'to wash.' Its original name most likely refers to the ancient Roman tradition of using lavender-infused water for bathing. Another possible interpretation stems from the earliest known English name for it, livendula, derived directly from the Latin name for a bluish color.
Lavender was used at least 2500 years ago by the ancient Egyptians, who are believed to have been first to extract the oil for perfumes, incense, and mummification. The Bible refers to lavender as 'spikenard.' The Greeks and Romans used the flowers or oil for cooking, to freshen the air, to scent bath water and clothing, and in sachets when traveling. The Greeks also ingested it to treat insomnia and back aches. In Spain it was listed as an ingredient for making a spiced wine called hippocras. It was used in Medieval times to scent linen and was strewn on the floors of churches and homes to release pleasant a smell when crushed under foot. At that time, women who took in washing for pay were called 'lavenders.' They frequently washed the clothing in lavender water and laid it out to dry on lavender bushes. King Charles VI of France insisted that his pillow always contained lavender so that he could sleep well.
Lavender was introduced into England early in the 17th century, when it initially was used to scent drawers and to stuff quilted jackets and caps. At that time, women wore small lavender pouches in their cleavage to lure suitors, and men used it to flavor snuff. At this time it became a cure-all mentioned in the writings of many English herbalists. It was also used as protection against the Black Plague of 1665 (sometimes worn on the wrists or hung above doors for protection), because it had been noted in the previous century that French glove makers, who were licensed to perfume their products with lavender, generally escaped cholera infection. Plague doctors, hired to treat victims of the pandemic, stuffed lavender into their face masks. This use against the Plague may have had some validity, since the infection was transmitted by fleas, which lavender repels.
It is said that Queen Elizabeth had fresh lavender in vases on her table every day, that she drank lavender tea for migraines, and that she prized lavender conserve (jam); and lavender became popular with the public for use in jams and other foods, as well as being used in teas both medicinally and for its taste. Queen Victoria used a lavender deodorant, and Victorians grew the plant in their gardens. Gypsy travelers of that time sold bunches of lavender on the streets of London to bring people good luck. Fresh lavender was dried and put into muslin bags for wardrobes and used to wash walls and furniture, and lavender bags were stuffed between sheets in linen presses. Lavender was used to repel inspects, to treat lice, as a perfume and a potpourri, in furniture polish and soap, and as a cure-all in household medicine cupboards.
The Shakers, a sect of Quakers, are credited with commercializing lavender in North America and introducing a variety of lavender-based products to the United States and Canada. The Shakers produced lavender medicines, jams, and scented products, and sold them to neighbors and customers outside their religious sect.
Lavender essential oil is obtained by steam distillation of cut flower spikes. The highest quality oil is produced in France, where L. angustifolia grows naturally at altitudes of 600-1500m. Lavender is harvested primarily between late June and September, when flowering has ended and the flower color has become more pale and grey. Harvesting is done either in bulk or by bunches, starting in the morning before the day becomes too hot, usually by hand for perfumery use. The fresh flowers are dried for a short time in sheds and then put into a large-volume vessel. Once filled and packed, the vessel is closed with an air-tight cover. Steam is passed through the contents, vaporizing the essential oil. The steam and oil droplets pass through a serpentine pipe into cold water and are decanted. The oil, less dense than water, floats and is skimmed off.
Distillation is primarily done in small local factories and yields a total of around 100 tons of pure oil each year. In its pure form, lavender oil is colorless to pale yellow and is insoluble in water. Early in the 20th century, most lavender essential oil was produced only in the Grasse region of France. Leading modern producers of lavender oil now are France, Bulgaria, and China. In recent years, around 60% of lavender essential oil has gone to perfumery.
There are four types of lavender essential oil:
True lavender (from L. angustifolia or officinalis), French lavender, used in high-quality perfumes
Maritime lavender (from L. stoechas), more camphorous, used in less expensive fragrances
Lavender aspic (from L. latifolia), also called 'spike oil' and used for toiletries and household products
Lavandin oil (from L. intermedia or lavendula x intermedia), used mainly for inexpensive perfumes and toiletries
When reduced to an absolute (by extraction of the flower buds with a hydrocarbon solvent, followed by ethanol, then cold-filtering and evaporation), lavender is brown to green and slightly viscous and has a more tenacious, distinctive herbal-hay smell reminiscent of natural flowering lavender. The absolute is sweeter but less floral than the essential oil and has a coumarin-like richness. For retail sale, the absolute is usually diluted to 10% in ethanol to make it more affordable and easier to pipette. It is sometimes used in combination with the essential oil in perfumes to provide more complexity. In the past, lavender absolute was produced primarily through enfleurage of the flowers and stems.
Over 100 individual aromatic chemicals have been extracted from lavender oil, the major ones being linalyl acetate (30-55%), linalool (20-35%), tannins (5-10%), and caryophyllene (8%). The relative amounts of these compounds vary considerably among lavender species.
Lavender is one of the most popular essential oils in perfumery and many other industries, especially in the United States. In perfumery, a number of different regional varieties are used. A single variety can produce a range of different aromatic notes depending on the growing region, the altitude at which it was grown, and the distilling techniques. Some lavender oils have a very sweet aroma, while others are distinctively sharp. French lavender (L. angustifolia), for example, smells quite sweet, but Dutch lavender (L. intermedia) has higher levels of camphor and other terpenes and displays a very strong and sharp overtone. In general, lavender's odor profile has a clean floral note, with green, fresh, fruity, spicy, slightly herbaceous-woody, and licorice facets.
Lavender mixes well with almost any floral, herbal, or spicy note. The oil is used mainly in fresh, sweet, and floral fragrances, especially as a top note in fougères. (Lavender was a key note in original Houbigant Fougère Royale (1882), considered the first modern perfume.) The sweeter absolute is often used to offer a sugary, herbaceous, woody tone to a composition. Like the oil, it blends especially well with citruses (especially bergamot, neroli, and orange blossom), rose, geranium, oakmoss, patchouli, peppermint, cinnamon, pines, cedarwood, coumarin, cloves, rosemary, chamomile, basil, and sage. Lavender also mixes well with vanilla, amber, and musk.
Lavender is commonly used in production of colognes for men (with around 90% of masculine compositions now containing it) and lends a heart note to many fragrances, especially vintage creations (e.g. Creed Royal Scottish Lavender and Atkinsons English Lavender in 1910), and a dry and balmy base to more modern ones (such as Hugo Boss Bottled Night). More recently, however, lavender has been used increasingly in compositions for women (and marketed for 'strong, bold, and free women who experiment with their freedom'). Lavender is considered an all-season fragrance, its versatility making it appropriate for either cold or warm weather.
Says perfumer Julie Massé, 'Lavender adds an herby note – but interestingly, by adding it to other fragrance notes you can push it towards 'cool' herby, towards the smell of mint, or you can go in the other direction and push it towards 'hot' herby, almost spicy, like the scent of a hot summer's night.' And perfumer Richard Ibanez adds, 'Lavender adds touches somewhere between reason and heart, and sharp and clear. It brings comfort and freshness and is, in the end, very reassuring.'
Many members of the lavandula genus are cultivated in temperate climates as ornamental plants for garden and landscape use and as culinary herbs. Lavender flower spikes are used for dried flower arrangements, and the flowers and buds are included in potpourris and sachet fillings. Dried and sealed in pouches, the flowers can be placed among stored clothing items to deter moths. Before the use of distilled turpentine became common, lavender oil was used as a solvent for oil painting. In toiletries, what is called 'lavender' sometimes is actually an artificial construct of vanilla, musk, and licorice notes. True lavender, however, is used in bath soaps, cleaning products, room deodorizers, candles, and food products.
The plant has culinary uses, adding a floral-sweet flavor to dishes. Culinary lavender is usually an English lavender species (L. angustifolia 'Munstead'). It has a sweet scent with citrus notes and is used as a spice in pastas, savory stews, salads and dressings, and desserts (especially chocolate ones). It is a common ingredient in the combination called Herbes de Provence. The buds and greens are used in black, green, or herbal teas. Lavender syrup and dried lavender buds are used to make lavender scone and marshmallows, and lavender nectar (from buds processed by bees) is employed to make monofloral honey. Lavender also can be used in breads where recipes call for rosemary. The potency of lavender flowers increases with drying, which necessitates sparing use to avoid a heavy, soapy aftertaste. Lavender buds are sometimes put into sugar for around two weeks to allow the fragrance to transfer, and then the 'lavender sugar' is used in baking. Lavender is frequently used to make tea.
For centuries French lavender has been used in various cultures as a natural remedy and in aromatherapy, mainly to improve mood, reduce anxiety and depression, relieve restlessness or insomnia, and soothe intestinal discomfort. In Asian traditional medicine, it was used for its 'cooling' effect on the heart and mind. It was used for centuries to fill pillows in order to promote a good night's sleep and prevent nightmares. Recipes also have mentioned lavender as a remedy for insect bites and for burns. During World War I, lavender essential oil was used in smelling salts and to disinfect surfaces in hospitals. In the 1930s, French chemist René-Maurice Gattefossé burned his hand in the laboratory and applied lavender oil to it. He was so impressed with the quick healing process that he published a book in which he coined the term 'aromatherapy' for its therapeutic use. At the same time, French biochemist Marguerite Maury developed a method of applying lavender and other oils to the skin with massage, creating the practice of aromatherapy massage that is now used worldwide.
Only the oil is used in massage and aromatherapy, not the absolute. Lavender is also reputed to improve memory recall and work productivity. Lavandin is the form most often associated with aromatherapy products, potpourri, and candles, because it is cheaper to use and easier to obtain. A 2016 study suggested that lavender odorants were associated with reduced mental stress. Although most research has not confirmed the efficacy of lavender in affecting human diseases, limited clinical trials suggest that is has benefit for relieving pain, postnatal perineal discomfort, and hot flashes.
Masculine perfume products that feature lavender include the following:
Ach Brito Lavanda
Acqua di Genova 1853 Anniversario
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana, Colonia
Adidas Adventure (various), Victory League
Adolfo Dominguez Agua (various)
Airness Cool Instinct
American Crew Sport
Amouage Sunshine Man
Annick Goutal l'Eau de Lavande
Antonio Puig Agua Lavanda
Aramis Adventurer
Avon Musk Oxygen
Baldessarini Ambre Eau Fraiche
Bourbon French Lavender
By Kilian A Taste of Heaven
Calvin Klein Eternity
Carolina Herrera 212 (various)
Caron pour un Homme
Cerruti 1881
Chanel Platinum Egoiste
Chopard 1000 Miglia
Crabtree & Evelyn Lavender
Creed Bois du Portugal
Czech & Speake Oxford and Cambridge
Dolce & Gabbana
D.R. Harris Albany, Old English Lavender Water
Dunhill Valensole Lavender
Elizabeth Arden for Men
Elysees Fashion Marconi
Ésika d'Orsay Class
Evterpa Pobeditelyat
Ferrari Pure Lavender
Galimard 1747
George F. Trumper Lavender Water
Giorgio Armani Eau pour Homme, Stronger with You
Guerlain EdP Intense, Héritage
Halston 1976
Houbigant Fougère Royale
Hugo Boss Bottled Night
Jacomo Ambro
JADS International Red Shirt
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Mâle
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Jovan Musk
Lacoste l'Eau
Lanvin l'Homme
Loewe 001 Man
Marciano Guess
Marley Percival
Mauboussin Homme
Mont'Anne My Phone Platinum Luxe
Montblanc Legend
O Boticario Acqua Sensation
l'Occitane Lavender
d'Orsay Arome 3
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Penhaligon's English Fern, Lavandula, Sartorial
Phytoderm Nomad
Prada Luna Rossa, Luna Rossa Carbon, Luna Rossa Extreme
Roberto Cavalli Black
Rochas Moustache
Roja 51
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Imperial
Salvatore Ferragamo F Black
Severnoye Siyanie Solnechnaya Lavanda
Shakespeare Macbeth
Shirley May Black Market
Shulton Night Spice
Style Adventure Sports
Swiss Guard
Taylor of Old Bond Street Luxury Lavender Water
Thierry Mugler A Men (various)
Tom Ford Beau de Jour, Costa Azzurra, Lavender Extreme
Ulric de Varens Lavande
Valentino Very
Vaquero
Victor Lavanda
Yardley English Lavender, Gentleman Legend
Yves St. Laurent La Nuit de l'Homme, Libre, Rive Gauche
Zara Amber Wood, Bergamot & Lavender, Scent #2
There are also very many unisex fragrances with prominent lavender.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Pineapple
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant in the family Bromeliaceae, indigenous to the Amazon rain forest of South America. The pineapple is an herbaceous perennial that generally grows to 1.0-1.5 meter tall. It has a short, stocky stem with narrow, tough, waxy leaves that are 30-100 cm long. The leaves of most varieties have sharp spines along the margins although a few are smooth. A plant usually produces up to 200 flowers, with the individual flowers of the unpollinated plant forming berries and fusing to form a single large, compact, multiple or 'collective' fruit. The fruit surface is arranged in two interlocking helices, often with 8 in one direction and 13 in the other. It can take 18-24 months for a plant to produce a pineapple fruit.
After the first fruit is produced, side shoots develop on the main stem; these 'suckers' may be removed for propagation or can be left to produce additional fruits on the original plant. In the wild, pineapples are pollinated primarily by hummingbirds, although some are foraged and pollinated at night by bats. (In Hawaii, where pineapples were cultivated and canned throughout the 20th century, importation of hummingbirds was prohibited for this reason.) Under cultivation, because seed development decreases fruit quality, pollination is performed by hand. The most commonly used method for commercial growing is cloning, in which the crown, slips (leafy branches directly below the fruit), suckers, or shoots are used to produce a new plant. It was found in the late 18th century that pineapple plants can be forced into flowering by exposure to smoke, and eventually research showed that this was due to ethylene in the smoke, which led to forced flowering with ethylene vapor in Hawaiian production.
The first botanical description of cultivated pineapple was by Charles Plumier at the end of the 17th century, when he created the genus Bromelia. He described it as Ananas aculeatus fructu ovato. In 1753, the famous botanist Carl Linnaeus designated the pineapple as Bromelia ananas and Bromelia comosa in his Species Plantarum.
The wild pineapple plant originated from the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay. Little is known about its first cultivation, but archeological evidence of cultivation and use has been found from as far back as 1200-800 BC in Peru and 700 BC-700 AD in Mexico, where it was grown by the Mayas and Aztecs. By the late 1400s, pineapple was widely distributed throughout South America and the Caribbean and was a stable component of the diet of the indigenous peoples. It was also used to make medicine, employed in rituals, fermented into wine, and taken on journeys for preventing scurvy.
Worldwide Spread
The first European to encounter the pineapple was Columbus, in late 1493 on Guadeloupe. He took some of the plants back to Spain when returning from his second voyage, calling it piña de Indes (pine of the Indians) because of its resemblance to a pinecone. It was documented subsequently in Peter Martyr's Decades of the New World (1516) and Antonio Pigafetta's Relazione del Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo (1524-25). The first reference in English to the pineapple fruit was the 1568 translation from the French of André Thevet's The New Found World, in which he described it being cultivated and eaten by the Tupinambá people near modern Rio de Janeiro. He called the fruit a 'Nana made in the manner of a Pine apple,' using the Tupi word nana meaning 'excellent fruit.' This usage was adopted by European languages and led to the plant's scientific name Ananas comosus, where comosus ('tufted') refers to the stem of the plant. According to etymological sources, the English word pineapple was first used in 1664, but the Oxford English Dictionary's first record of the word appeared in 1714. The actual word pineapple has only been used in English; all other European languages have referred to the pineapple as ananas.
Portuguese colonists took the fruit from Brazil to St. Helena in 1505, to Madagascar and southern India by 1550, to China in the 1590s, and to colonial Guinea on the West African coast in 1602. The Spanish introduced the pineapple to the Philippines and Java in the 1500s, to Singapore by 1637, and subsequently to Taiwan, the Cape of Good Hope, Burma, Thailand, and Hawaii. Missionaries took the pineapple from India to Australia in 1838.
The pineapple fascinated Europeans, who had little exposure to sweets, but it was not cultivated successfully in Europe until Pieter de la Court developed greenhouse horticulture around 1658. King Charles II was said to have been given the first pineapple grown in England in 1677. Live pineapple plants were distributed from the Netherlands to England in 1719 and to France in 1730. By 1733, King Louis XV of France had been presented with a pineapple that was grown in a hothouse at Versailles. And in Russia, Catherine the Great ate pineapples grown on her own estates by 1796.
Chelsea Gardens of London built a 'pineapple stove' that heated their hothouse in order to first cultivate pineapples for the required long growing cycle. Because of the high cost of equipment and labor required to grow them in a temperate climate in these greenhouse 'pineries' (before the development of central hot water heating systems in 1816), pineapples continued to be rare and highly valued and became a symbol of wealth and prestige. In the 1807 Proceedings of the Old Bailey, a case is mentioned in which a Mr. Godding was sentenced to banishment to Australia for seven years for stealing 7 pineapples. By the second half of the 18th century, pineapple production on British estates had become a source of great rivalry between wealthy aristocrats. John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, was famous for building a hothouse topped by a huge 14-meter tall cupola in the shape of the fruit, now known as the Dunmore Pineapple. Interestingly, the fruit was rarely eaten at that time by the aristocrats, instead being used over and over for central displays at dinner parties. Some party-goers would even rent a pineapple for an evening and carry it around like an accessory. Eventually this 'pineapple madness' spread across Europe and to the American colonies, where a single pineapple could cost as much as $8000 in today's dollars.
In the late 17th century, the Netherlands acted as the central pineapple fruit hub for all of Europe and much of Asia, with most of it cultivated in Dutch Surinam for export. But by the early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported directly from the West Indies in quantities large enough to reduce European prices somewhat. Later, pineapple production became dominated by the Azores for European consumption and by Florida and the Caribbean for export to North America. Initially pineapples were very difficult to transport due to the slow, hot voyages of sailing ships. But after the invention of the Wardian case (a terrarium-like glazed and sealed glass box) in 1842 by Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward, their shipment by sail became more practical. And with the introduction of steamships in the early 1800s, transport became much less expensive.
Commercial Production
The Spanish had introduced the pineapple into Hawaii in the 18th century, but the first commercial plantation was not established there until 1886. The most prominent investor in the pineapple market was James Dole, who moved to Hawaii in 1899 and started his plantation in 1900 on the island of Oahu. One of his employees, Henry Ginaca, invented an automatic pineapple peeling and coring machine in 1911, which greatly facilitated commercial processing of the fruit. The Del Monte Company also began growing pineapples there in 1917, and for decades the islands produced over 75% of the world crop. Hawaiian production finally began to decline in the 1970s because of increased competition, especially in Central and South America and southeastern Asia. Dole stopped its cannery operations in 1991, and Del Monte stopped growing pineapples in Hawaii in 2008. By 2013, the Dole Plantation grew pineapples in a volume of only about 0.1% of the world's production.
Many different varieties, most from the Antilles, were tried for commercial European greenhouse cultivation. Most prominent was the Smooth Cayenne (named because of its smooth leaves), which was imported to France in 1820 and subsequently re-exported to England in 1835, then to Australia and Africa. Since then, smooth Cayenne has remained the dominant cultivar in world pineapple production. Other common commercial cultivars include Hilo, Natal Queen, Pernambuco, and Red Spanish.
In the Philippines, Smooth Cayenne was introduced in the early 1900s, during the American colonial period, and Dole and Del Monte both established large-scale plantations there in the 1920s; the Southeast Asian trade was severely damaged during World War II, but the Philippines remained a major exporter of pineapples. By 2016, Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounted for about one third of the world's production of the fruit, followed by Thailand and India.
In architecture and decorating in both Europe and the American colonies of the 17th and 18th centuries, pineapple figures became elements symbolizing hospitality and generosity, as well as wealth and luxury. Pineapple weathervanes and finials on public buildings, such as the gilt copper ones on the towers of St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as cast and carved architectural figures, were reminders of the pinecones on ancient Roman buildings.
Pineapple figures also were carved into stone and wood, including lintels and gateposts; stenciled onto walls; modeled in chinaware; and woven into carpets, tablecloths, napkins, and drapes. The image of a pineapple often was carved into American colonial bedposts, headboards, chairs, and armoires, and a guest who was spending the night would consider it a privilege to be given a room with such artistic flourishes. In 1751, George Washington, having tasted pineapples in Barbados, built a hothouse at his Mt. Vernon estate for growing pineapples. In post-Revolutionary War America, entrepreneurs began to grow pineapples in hothouses and selling them commercially, and innkeepers added the pineapple to their signs, door knockers, welcome mats, and advertisements, especially in the South.
Pineapple in Perfumery
There is some argument about whether or not actual pineapple essential oil exists commercially. Some people say that the oil is extracted from the fruit and peel of the pineapple by industrial cold pressing. Pineapple essential oil is said to be very expensive due to difficulties involved in its large-scale extraction.
Some writers claim that with the aromatic chemicals in the pineapple having been identified through headspace technology and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, synthetic versions are now used to make nearly all fragrances with pineapple notes. The aroma compounds producing the characteristic smell seem to depend upon where the crop is grown, the differing season patterns, different rates and stages of ripening and development of the fruit, and storage conditions. The oil components said to provide most of the scent include a variety of esters, lactones, acids, hydrocarbons, sulfur-containing compounds, and carbonyl compounds. Although much research has been done for over the last 60 years and there has a been a lot of discussion, there is still little clear understanding of the quantity of each constituent in the fruit and of the contributions of the various constituents to the fresh, sweet aroma of a pineapple. Over 280 volatile compounds have been identified, but few have been recognized as clearly providing elements of the smell. One considered by most experts to be among the most important is furaneol, which also is a flavor and scent component in strawberries. One relatively recent study, using aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) of a distillate from fresh pineapple, identified twelve compounds as key odorants, primarily HDF, ethyl methylpropanoates and methylbutanoates, and undecatriene. And a mixture of these chemicals in concentrations approximately equal to those in fresh pineapple produced a smell very similar to that of the fresh juice.
Other chemicals and extracts frequently are added additionally to reinforce or 'round out' the pineapple smell in commercial fragrances. These include coumarin, vanillin, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, benzyl cinnamate, citral, citronellol, eugenol, farsenol, geraniol, tree moss, and oakmoss. Oakmoss and bergamot turn the sweet pineapple note somewhat more bitter, and ambergris adds a salty touch to it.
In perfumery, pineapple provides a strong, intense sweetness without being cloying, but it also has an almost metallic sharpness, providing a counterbalance to rich, smooth ingredients such as vanilla, coconut, amber, caramel, and sandalwood. It most often is used as a top note but can also be featured as a heart note and less commonly in the dry-down. Tones with which it mixes well include other fruits (such as lime, lemon, apple, raspberry, and black current), flowers ( especially lily-of-the-valley, rose, iris, and jasmine), patchouli, pink pepper, vetiver, bergamot, musk, bamboo, and woods such as cedar and birch. It is fresh and is sometimes described as invigorating and 'punchy,' and it is generally more suited to daytime wear than for evenings, especially in seasonal summer compositions. Pineapple is such a strong, distinctive aroma that it is not appreciated by everyone. A subtype of the pineapple scent is the rarely used pineapple blossom note, which has a floral tone, with slight touches of grass and wood, and is somewhat less sweet.
Masculine pineapple fragrances include the following:
Abercrombie & Fitch Away, Fierce Confidence, First Instinct Together
Adolfo Dominguez
Alejandro Sanz Mi Acorde El
Alfred Dunhill Desire Gold
Aramis Bermuda Tonic
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense Man
l'Artisan Ananas Fizz
Athena Art Tre
Avon 015 Miami Nights, My Vibe Graffiti
Azzaro Chrome
Baldinini
Benetton Energy Man
Beverly Hills Polo Club Trophy
Bond No. 9 Riverside Drive, The Scent of Peace
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Summer 2010
Canali Summer Night
Carolina Herrera CH Kings
Carrera Jeans 700 Original Uomo
Cerruti 1881 Silver
Chris Adams Dispute
Christian Dior Higher Energy
Christian Riese Lassen Rising Wave Clear Green
Coty Avatar
Creed Aventus
Donna Karan DK, DKNY Summer 2016, Fuel
Elysees Fashion Marconi
l'Erbolario Felci
Esprit Man
Expand Love & Peace Brave
Faberlic Asterion, Atlantic
Faberge Brut Alaska
Gin Tonic Man
Givenchy, Ultramarine (var.)
Guy Fox Hermis
Hugo Boss Bottled Mats Hummels, Bottled Unlimited, Elements Aqua, Energize, Red
Ilum Dean Fresco
Jacomo
Jacques Bogart Santana Bay, Story Green
Jaguar Vision
Jeanne Arthes JS Magnetic Power Night
Joop! Chill Out, Nightflight
Kenneth Cole Blue
Liz Claiborne Curve
Loewe Agua de Loewe El
Louis Armand Ultimate Drive
Maxim's Leather Night I
Mexx Amsterdam Spring Edition Man
Molsheim Platinum
Mont Blanc Individuel, Legend
Natura Amo Esquenta, Homem Zero Grau
Nautica Blue
O Boticario Egeo On You, Egeo Provoke
Oriflame Urban Lovers
Phytoderm Platinum
Prime Collection Deep Sense Black, Marconi
Refan Coca Pura
Ted Lapidus
Tommy Hilfiger Dark Midnight, Sport
Thera Cosmeticos Lotus, Sur
Yvan Serras Black
Zara Happiness Loading, Midnight Hour, Rich Leather, Summer 14.0, Vibrant Leather Bogoss, W/END till 3:00 AM
There are no pineapple blossom compositions that are specifically designated as masculine, but there are several unisex products, including:
Ard Al Zaafaran Al Ibdaa Gold
Blend Oud Zagar
RisingWave Zero, Zero Ecstacy
Samy Andraus Love Dreams
Pineapple (Ananas comosus) is a tropical plant in the family Bromeliaceae, indigenous to the Amazon rain forest of South America. The pineapple is an herbaceous perennial that generally grows to 1.0-1.5 meter tall. It has a short, stocky stem with narrow, tough, waxy leaves that are 30-100 cm long. The leaves of most varieties have sharp spines along the margins although a few are smooth. A plant usually produces up to 200 flowers, with the individual flowers of the unpollinated plant forming berries and fusing to form a single large, compact, multiple or 'collective' fruit. The fruit surface is arranged in two interlocking helices, often with 8 in one direction and 13 in the other. It can take 18-24 months for a plant to produce a pineapple fruit.
After the first fruit is produced, side shoots develop on the main stem; these 'suckers' may be removed for propagation or can be left to produce additional fruits on the original plant. In the wild, pineapples are pollinated primarily by hummingbirds, although some are foraged and pollinated at night by bats. (In Hawaii, where pineapples were cultivated and canned throughout the 20th century, importation of hummingbirds was prohibited for this reason.) Under cultivation, because seed development decreases fruit quality, pollination is performed by hand. The most commonly used method for commercial growing is cloning, in which the crown, slips (leafy branches directly below the fruit), suckers, or shoots are used to produce a new plant. It was found in the late 18th century that pineapple plants can be forced into flowering by exposure to smoke, and eventually research showed that this was due to ethylene in the smoke, which led to forced flowering with ethylene vapor in Hawaiian production.
The first botanical description of cultivated pineapple was by Charles Plumier at the end of the 17th century, when he created the genus Bromelia. He described it as Ananas aculeatus fructu ovato. In 1753, the famous botanist Carl Linnaeus designated the pineapple as Bromelia ananas and Bromelia comosa in his Species Plantarum.
The wild pineapple plant originated from the Paraná–Paraguay River drainages between southern Brazil and Paraguay. Little is known about its first cultivation, but archeological evidence of cultivation and use has been found from as far back as 1200-800 BC in Peru and 700 BC-700 AD in Mexico, where it was grown by the Mayas and Aztecs. By the late 1400s, pineapple was widely distributed throughout South America and the Caribbean and was a stable component of the diet of the indigenous peoples. It was also used to make medicine, employed in rituals, fermented into wine, and taken on journeys for preventing scurvy.
Worldwide Spread
The first European to encounter the pineapple was Columbus, in late 1493 on Guadeloupe. He took some of the plants back to Spain when returning from his second voyage, calling it piña de Indes (pine of the Indians) because of its resemblance to a pinecone. It was documented subsequently in Peter Martyr's Decades of the New World (1516) and Antonio Pigafetta's Relazione del Primo Viaggio Intorno al Mondo (1524-25). The first reference in English to the pineapple fruit was the 1568 translation from the French of André Thevet's The New Found World, in which he described it being cultivated and eaten by the Tupinambá people near modern Rio de Janeiro. He called the fruit a 'Nana made in the manner of a Pine apple,' using the Tupi word nana meaning 'excellent fruit.' This usage was adopted by European languages and led to the plant's scientific name Ananas comosus, where comosus ('tufted') refers to the stem of the plant. According to etymological sources, the English word pineapple was first used in 1664, but the Oxford English Dictionary's first record of the word appeared in 1714. The actual word pineapple has only been used in English; all other European languages have referred to the pineapple as ananas.
Portuguese colonists took the fruit from Brazil to St. Helena in 1505, to Madagascar and southern India by 1550, to China in the 1590s, and to colonial Guinea on the West African coast in 1602. The Spanish introduced the pineapple to the Philippines and Java in the 1500s, to Singapore by 1637, and subsequently to Taiwan, the Cape of Good Hope, Burma, Thailand, and Hawaii. Missionaries took the pineapple from India to Australia in 1838.
The pineapple fascinated Europeans, who had little exposure to sweets, but it was not cultivated successfully in Europe until Pieter de la Court developed greenhouse horticulture around 1658. King Charles II was said to have been given the first pineapple grown in England in 1677. Live pineapple plants were distributed from the Netherlands to England in 1719 and to France in 1730. By 1733, King Louis XV of France had been presented with a pineapple that was grown in a hothouse at Versailles. And in Russia, Catherine the Great ate pineapples grown on her own estates by 1796.
Chelsea Gardens of London built a 'pineapple stove' that heated their hothouse in order to first cultivate pineapples for the required long growing cycle. Because of the high cost of equipment and labor required to grow them in a temperate climate in these greenhouse 'pineries' (before the development of central hot water heating systems in 1816), pineapples continued to be rare and highly valued and became a symbol of wealth and prestige. In the 1807 Proceedings of the Old Bailey, a case is mentioned in which a Mr. Godding was sentenced to banishment to Australia for seven years for stealing 7 pineapples. By the second half of the 18th century, pineapple production on British estates had become a source of great rivalry between wealthy aristocrats. John Murray, 4th Earl of Dunmore, was famous for building a hothouse topped by a huge 14-meter tall cupola in the shape of the fruit, now known as the Dunmore Pineapple. Interestingly, the fruit was rarely eaten at that time by the aristocrats, instead being used over and over for central displays at dinner parties. Some party-goers would even rent a pineapple for an evening and carry it around like an accessory. Eventually this 'pineapple madness' spread across Europe and to the American colonies, where a single pineapple could cost as much as $8000 in today's dollars.
In the late 17th century, the Netherlands acted as the central pineapple fruit hub for all of Europe and much of Asia, with most of it cultivated in Dutch Surinam for export. But by the early 19th century, fresh pineapples were transported directly from the West Indies in quantities large enough to reduce European prices somewhat. Later, pineapple production became dominated by the Azores for European consumption and by Florida and the Caribbean for export to North America. Initially pineapples were very difficult to transport due to the slow, hot voyages of sailing ships. But after the invention of the Wardian case (a terrarium-like glazed and sealed glass box) in 1842 by Nathaniel Bagshaw Ward, their shipment by sail became more practical. And with the introduction of steamships in the early 1800s, transport became much less expensive.
Commercial Production
The Spanish had introduced the pineapple into Hawaii in the 18th century, but the first commercial plantation was not established there until 1886. The most prominent investor in the pineapple market was James Dole, who moved to Hawaii in 1899 and started his plantation in 1900 on the island of Oahu. One of his employees, Henry Ginaca, invented an automatic pineapple peeling and coring machine in 1911, which greatly facilitated commercial processing of the fruit. The Del Monte Company also began growing pineapples there in 1917, and for decades the islands produced over 75% of the world crop. Hawaiian production finally began to decline in the 1970s because of increased competition, especially in Central and South America and southeastern Asia. Dole stopped its cannery operations in 1991, and Del Monte stopped growing pineapples in Hawaii in 2008. By 2013, the Dole Plantation grew pineapples in a volume of only about 0.1% of the world's production.
Many different varieties, most from the Antilles, were tried for commercial European greenhouse cultivation. Most prominent was the Smooth Cayenne (named because of its smooth leaves), which was imported to France in 1820 and subsequently re-exported to England in 1835, then to Australia and Africa. Since then, smooth Cayenne has remained the dominant cultivar in world pineapple production. Other common commercial cultivars include Hilo, Natal Queen, Pernambuco, and Red Spanish.
In the Philippines, Smooth Cayenne was introduced in the early 1900s, during the American colonial period, and Dole and Del Monte both established large-scale plantations there in the 1920s; the Southeast Asian trade was severely damaged during World War II, but the Philippines remained a major exporter of pineapples. By 2016, Costa Rica, Brazil, and the Philippines accounted for about one third of the world's production of the fruit, followed by Thailand and India.
In architecture and decorating in both Europe and the American colonies of the 17th and 18th centuries, pineapple figures became elements symbolizing hospitality and generosity, as well as wealth and luxury. Pineapple weathervanes and finials on public buildings, such as the gilt copper ones on the towers of St. Paul's Cathedral, as well as cast and carved architectural figures, were reminders of the pinecones on ancient Roman buildings.
Pineapple figures also were carved into stone and wood, including lintels and gateposts; stenciled onto walls; modeled in chinaware; and woven into carpets, tablecloths, napkins, and drapes. The image of a pineapple often was carved into American colonial bedposts, headboards, chairs, and armoires, and a guest who was spending the night would consider it a privilege to be given a room with such artistic flourishes. In 1751, George Washington, having tasted pineapples in Barbados, built a hothouse at his Mt. Vernon estate for growing pineapples. In post-Revolutionary War America, entrepreneurs began to grow pineapples in hothouses and selling them commercially, and innkeepers added the pineapple to their signs, door knockers, welcome mats, and advertisements, especially in the South.
Pineapple in Perfumery
There is some argument about whether or not actual pineapple essential oil exists commercially. Some people say that the oil is extracted from the fruit and peel of the pineapple by industrial cold pressing. Pineapple essential oil is said to be very expensive due to difficulties involved in its large-scale extraction.
Some writers claim that with the aromatic chemicals in the pineapple having been identified through headspace technology and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry, synthetic versions are now used to make nearly all fragrances with pineapple notes. The aroma compounds producing the characteristic smell seem to depend upon where the crop is grown, the differing season patterns, different rates and stages of ripening and development of the fruit, and storage conditions. The oil components said to provide most of the scent include a variety of esters, lactones, acids, hydrocarbons, sulfur-containing compounds, and carbonyl compounds. Although much research has been done for over the last 60 years and there has a been a lot of discussion, there is still little clear understanding of the quantity of each constituent in the fruit and of the contributions of the various constituents to the fresh, sweet aroma of a pineapple. Over 280 volatile compounds have been identified, but few have been recognized as clearly providing elements of the smell. One considered by most experts to be among the most important is furaneol, which also is a flavor and scent component in strawberries. One relatively recent study, using aroma extract dilution analysis (AEDA) of a distillate from fresh pineapple, identified twelve compounds as key odorants, primarily HDF, ethyl methylpropanoates and methylbutanoates, and undecatriene. And a mixture of these chemicals in concentrations approximately equal to those in fresh pineapple produced a smell very similar to that of the fresh juice.
Other chemicals and extracts frequently are added additionally to reinforce or 'round out' the pineapple smell in commercial fragrances. These include coumarin, vanillin, amyl cinnamic aldehyde, benzyl cinnamate, citral, citronellol, eugenol, farsenol, geraniol, tree moss, and oakmoss. Oakmoss and bergamot turn the sweet pineapple note somewhat more bitter, and ambergris adds a salty touch to it.
In perfumery, pineapple provides a strong, intense sweetness without being cloying, but it also has an almost metallic sharpness, providing a counterbalance to rich, smooth ingredients such as vanilla, coconut, amber, caramel, and sandalwood. It most often is used as a top note but can also be featured as a heart note and less commonly in the dry-down. Tones with which it mixes well include other fruits (such as lime, lemon, apple, raspberry, and black current), flowers ( especially lily-of-the-valley, rose, iris, and jasmine), patchouli, pink pepper, vetiver, bergamot, musk, bamboo, and woods such as cedar and birch. It is fresh and is sometimes described as invigorating and 'punchy,' and it is generally more suited to daytime wear than for evenings, especially in seasonal summer compositions. Pineapple is such a strong, distinctive aroma that it is not appreciated by everyone. A subtype of the pineapple scent is the rarely used pineapple blossom note, which has a floral tone, with slight touches of grass and wood, and is somewhat less sweet.
Masculine pineapple fragrances include the following:
Abercrombie & Fitch Away, Fierce Confidence, First Instinct Together
Adolfo Dominguez
Alejandro Sanz Mi Acorde El
Alfred Dunhill Desire Gold
Aramis Bermuda Tonic
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense Man
l'Artisan Ananas Fizz
Athena Art Tre
Avon 015 Miami Nights, My Vibe Graffiti
Azzaro Chrome
Baldinini
Benetton Energy Man
Beverly Hills Polo Club Trophy
Bond No. 9 Riverside Drive, The Scent of Peace
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Summer 2010
Canali Summer Night
Carolina Herrera CH Kings
Carrera Jeans 700 Original Uomo
Cerruti 1881 Silver
Chris Adams Dispute
Christian Dior Higher Energy
Christian Riese Lassen Rising Wave Clear Green
Coty Avatar
Creed Aventus
Donna Karan DK, DKNY Summer 2016, Fuel
Elysees Fashion Marconi
l'Erbolario Felci
Esprit Man
Expand Love & Peace Brave
Faberlic Asterion, Atlantic
Faberge Brut Alaska
Gin Tonic Man
Givenchy, Ultramarine (var.)
Guy Fox Hermis
Hugo Boss Bottled Mats Hummels, Bottled Unlimited, Elements Aqua, Energize, Red
Ilum Dean Fresco
Jacomo
Jacques Bogart Santana Bay, Story Green
Jaguar Vision
Jeanne Arthes JS Magnetic Power Night
Joop! Chill Out, Nightflight
Kenneth Cole Blue
Liz Claiborne Curve
Loewe Agua de Loewe El
Louis Armand Ultimate Drive
Maxim's Leather Night I
Mexx Amsterdam Spring Edition Man
Molsheim Platinum
Mont Blanc Individuel, Legend
Natura Amo Esquenta, Homem Zero Grau
Nautica Blue
O Boticario Egeo On You, Egeo Provoke
Oriflame Urban Lovers
Phytoderm Platinum
Prime Collection Deep Sense Black, Marconi
Refan Coca Pura
Ted Lapidus
Tommy Hilfiger Dark Midnight, Sport
Thera Cosmeticos Lotus, Sur
Yvan Serras Black
Zara Happiness Loading, Midnight Hour, Rich Leather, Summer 14.0, Vibrant Leather Bogoss, W/END till 3:00 AM
There are no pineapple blossom compositions that are specifically designated as masculine, but there are several unisex products, including:
Ard Al Zaafaran Al Ibdaa Gold
Blend Oud Zagar
RisingWave Zero, Zero Ecstacy
Samy Andraus Love Dreams
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Pepper
Today, on Thanksgiving Day, when many folks are feasting on good food, I thought it was appropriate to write about pepper in perfumery.
Pepper (Piper nigrum) is a perennial climbing vine (liana) in the family Piperaceae, thought to have originated in the Malabar region of southwest India. It grows to a height of up to 4m when supported. The original stem produces numerous lateral branches, and runner shoots arise from the base. Leaves are thick and have variable shapes and sizes. Pepper blooms with many tiny flowers, generally in May and June, and produces bunches of berries, each vine producing 1-1.5 kg of seeded berries (called peppercorns) every year. The pepper seed is distributed in the wild mainly by birds, but also by bats.
There are several varieties of pepper-producing plants, but only the fruit of P. nigrum is legally called pepper for exportation and sale. Wild peppers have a pantropical distribution and are most commonly found in the understory of lowland tropical forests. Pepper is cultivated commercially in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Madagascar, Brazil, and Cameroon. 300,000 tons of pepper are produced each year, accounting for about a quarter of the total global spice trade. Vietnam is the largest producer and exporter of pepper. The largest number of Piper species are found in the Americas (700), with about 300 species in southern Asia, 40 species in the South Pacific, and 15 species in Africa. Each of these area groups seems to be monophyletic (derived from a common genetic ancestor).
The name Piperaceae most likely was derived from the Sanskrit term pippali (which was used to describe the long pepper species P. longum), the Latin piper, and Old English pipor.
A pepper plant produces all four different types of pepper used in perfumery: green, black, white, or red peppercorns can be obtained from the same plant, depending upon the maturity of the peppercorns when harvested, and each contains its own essential oil.
- Green pepper is obtained by preventing the immature green berries from maturing by canning them, keeping them in a moisturized state, and/or treating them with sulfur dioxide. They are then dried quickly at high temperature to preserve the color. They also can be eaten fresh or in brine.
- Black pepper is obtained by harvesting the berries just before maturity. The berries are sometimes cooked briefly in hot water, which speeds the work of browning enzymes during subsequent drying. They are then allowed to sun-dry, wrinkle, harden, and turn black, fermenting very slightly.
- White pepper is the seed of the ripe fruit of the plant. It is a pepper that is allowed to mature before harvest, soaked in water for about a week ('retting') to allow removal of its pericarp, and then dried. It is the mildest and sweetest pepper.
- Red pepper is harvested after 9 months of ripening, with the peppercorns dried in the shade and either treated with the same color-preserving techniques as used with green peppercorns or preserved in brine and vinegar.
Two other species of Piper used for fragrances are the long pepper (or Indonesian pepper) (P. longum) and the cubeb pepper (or round, tailed, Java, or grey pepper) (P. cubeba or P. guineense). The long pepper is more closely related to black pepper botanically and in its piquant smell.
Cubeb is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra. The fruits of both are gathered before they ripen and are then dried. For commercial trade, cubeb usually consists of whole dried berries, similar in appearance to black peppercorns but with stalks ('tails') attached. The berries are hard and wrinkled and range from grey-brown to almost black in color. It has been mentioned in writing at least since the 4th century BC, usually included as an ingredient in aromatic mixtures with cinnamon and cassia. For centuries, Javanese cubeb growers protected their monopoly of the trade by scalding the berries to sterilize them, ensuring that the vines could not be cultivated elsewhere.
There are also two species in the woody-shrub Rutaceae family, unrelated to the Pipers and related to citrus fruits, which are used as well in perfumery: the Timut pepper(Zanthoxylum alatum), with grapefruit accents, and Szechuan (or Sichuan) peppers (Zanthoxylum species). Szechuan pepper varieties are grown in China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, western India, Indonesia, Sumatra, Malaysia, the Philippines, and throughout the Himalayas of Nepal, Tibet, and Bhutan. Also closely related to the Szechuan pepper is the Japanese pepper (Z. piperitum), known sometimes as the Japanese prickly ash. Freshly harvested Timut, Szechuan, and Japanese peppers are left out to dry in the sun before processing.
Additionally used in perfumery is 'pink' pepper, the berries of the Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle) or the closely related Brazilian or 'peppertree' pepper (S. terebinthifolius). Pink pepper frequently is termed 'false pepper' because it is not hot. It is in the family Anacardiaceae, which includes the cashews, and its trees are native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Chile. It now grows mainly in Madagascar, New Caledonia, and Reunion Island, but it also has been introduced to the southern United States and Hawaii. The fruit of this tree is dried when ripe.
The pink pepper tree was considered sacred by the Incas. It has been documented in texts since the 5th century but did not become very popular until the 20th century. The terebinthifolius was said to have been introduced as an ornamental plant in 1891 in Florida, from where it spread rapidly, gaining the name 'Florida Holly.' Its name derives from the Greek word for lentisque trees that produce mastic, probably because it and pink pepper trees produce a similar secretion. The chemical constituent that is thought to produce most of their mild scent is carene.
Water pepper (Persicaria hydropiper), also called marshpepper and unrelated to the previously discussed peppers, is a plant of the family Polygonaceae. It is an annual herb bush. Native to Europe, temperate Asia, and North America, it is also found in Australia and New Zealand. The aromatic oil used in perfumery is distilled from the leaves.
History
Pepper, the 'King of Spices,' was documented in Indian cooking since at least 2000 BC. It also was well known in ancient Egypt and Assyria. The lost ancient port city of Muziris, in the western Indian state of Kerala, was famous for exporting black pepper and was mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Yemen, the Levant, Greece, and the Roman Empire. Pepper was often called 'black gold' and was used as a form of commodity money.
Archeologists found black peppercorns stuffed in the nostrils of the mummified Ramesses II, placed there after his death in 1213 BC. Black pepper and long pepper were known in Greece by the 4th century BC. By the time of the early Roman Empire, open-ocean trading with India's Malabar Coast was common, with travel timed to take advantage of predictable monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships traveled up the Red Sea, and the cargo was then carried overland or through the Nile-Red Sea canal to the Nile River. There it was barged to Alexandra and then shipped to Rome and from to other parts of Europe.
When Rome was besieged by Alaric, king of the Visigoths, in the 5th century, he demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom for the city. After the fall of Rome, the Persians and then the Arabs took over the central part of the spice trade from India. From the Mediterranean, pepper had been one of the first spices to arrive in Europe, and in the Middle Ages it began to play a major role in European cuisine. By the end of the Middle Ages, the trade was firmly controlled by Italian powers, especially Venice and Genoa. Pepper was quite expensive at that time, and it was the search for this precious spice which partially motivated the great voyages of exploration of the colonial empires, including the trips of Columbus and Vasco de Gama.
Initially the Portuguese gained some control of the spice trade on the Arabian sea, with the Treaty of Tordesillas giving them exclusive legal rights to the area of the world where black pepper originated. However, other trade networks successfully continued to import enormous quantities of pepper through Alexandria and Italy, as well as around Africa, and by the 17th century the Portuguese had lost almost all of their Indian trade to the Dutch and English. As pepper supplies for Europe increased, the price declined, and pepper eventually became an everyday seasoning among common citizens.
Pepper also was known in China by the 2nd century BC, according to reputed reports of the explorer Tang Meng. By the 3rd century, black pepper had appeared in Chinese texts, but it was not widely known there until around the 12th century, when it became a popular cooking ingredient for the wealthy and powerful. Marco Polo wrote of its popularity in China in the 13th century; and in the early 15th century an Admiral Zheng He returned with a huge amount of black pepper in his fleet's ships, making the luxury item much more of a commodity for general use.
Use in Perfumery
Most pepper oil is made in Western Europe and North America from imported black pepper. Pepper essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the dried and crushed berries, yielding around 1-3% by weight of the colorless to pale greenish-grey oil. Initially fluid, the oil becomes more viscous with aging. Less often the oil is obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction, which gives an extremely pure product that expresses the pepper scent most fully and accurately.
Overall, black pepper is most often associated with spicy, bracing, woody, earthy, aromatic notes that bring freshness and add nuance to other notes, including citruses (especially bergamot, mandarin, and lemon), other spices (ginger, clove, coriander, rosemary, clary sage, fennel), florals (lavender, geranium), sandalwood, and benzoin. Black pepper most often appears in the top notes of a fragrance. Despite study, the exact molecules that provide the pepper aroma remain a mystery, but it is thought that the main aromatic constituents are eugenol, limonene, beta-caryophyllenes, and alpha- and beta-pinenes. Other components include myrcene, para-cymene, linalool, cineol, cresols, and piperonal. Pink pepper and black pepper are used frequently in fragrances for both men and women, with the others used less often.
Black pepper and white pepper have a common spicy, woody tone, with white pepper being more intense and warmer, almost animalic. Unlike black pepper, white pepper's note runs through all phases of a perfume, participating in the top, heart, and base notes. White pepper especially gives a warm, spicy aspect to a perfume, blending well with woody, chypre, and oriental notes.
Timut pepper is very bright, with a lemony scent and pronounced grapefruit accents. Szechuan pepper oil has a bright, zesty, herbal, slightly fruity character. When most pure, it also has an animalic and metallic note. Oil from the related Japanese peppercorns is more citrusy.
Pink pepper has a fresh, delicate, floral-herbal, lemony accent somewhat reminiscent of lavender and bergamot, sometimes with a light rose or blackcurrant nuance. It is sweet-spicy, with hints of pine, anise, and menthol. It acts mainly in the top notes of a composition (but can also appear in the heart notes) and has been widely used by perfumers, frequently in combination with citruses, to add sparkle and 'height' without being too striking. Pink pepper essential oil has been about twice as expensive as superior-quality black pepper oil, but its price has been decreasing; and recently the pink pepper presence has become as ubiquitous as musk or rose in perfumes (especially those of Chanel, Trresor, and Yves St. Laurent). While traditional distillation techniques produced bottom-heavy essences of pink pepper, the soft technique yields a purer aroma with more sparkling top notes. A trend report in 2012 by Scentsy.com declared pink pepper to be a 'note of the future.' Said Tom Pastre of Creatique, a fragrance consulting firm, "Pink pepper is appropriate for these challenging times because it is uplifting and has a certain optimism to it. It's bold and zesty but has a warmth that's comforting. It is the contrasts that make it exciting."
Cubeb pepper aroma is described as pleasant and aromatic, somewhat similar to allspice, sometimes with a slight camphoraceous odor. Cubeb is the most fragrant of all known peppers and can seem overpowering to Western noses, so it is infrequently used in scent compositions for European and American markets. Cubeb essential oil sometimes is adulterated with oil of other Piper species, so perfumers must be cautious in obtaining it.
Water pepper has very little aroma and is a bit bright but not floral. It is described as similar to Szechuan pepper but somewhat more 'clean' and less pungent.
Many oriental perfumes with a bright, spicy accord have contained relatively high percentages of black pepper oil. Since the 1980s, black pepper has also appeared in fougère and citrus colognes for men. Until the recent appearance of black pepper mono-aromas such as Marc Jacobs Bang and Molton Brown Black Pepper, the highest known concentrations of black pepper oil were 6% in Ralph Lauren Extreme Polo Sport and 5% in Caron Parfum Sacre, with a number of others, such as Cerutti 1881 and Guerlain Homme having 1-2%. Higher percentages of black pepper have been more common in masculine fragrances.
Because the exact odorants producing a 'peppery' smell have still not been isolated and defined exactly, there are very few synthetic pepper materials manufactured. Givaudan produced 'pepperwood' (dimethylcarbamate, a linalool derivative), which has a bright, diffusive aspect that is said to be quite close to that of black pepper. The other synthetic that is commonly used, poivrol, actually smells more like fresh wood shavings than pepper.
Culinary Use
Culinary use of peppers for at least 9,000 years has been documented, with peppercorn remains found among food refuse in caves. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire of the first century BC, Edward Gibbon wrote that pepper was "a favorite ingredieint of the most expensive Roman cookery. The Apicius, a recipe collection compiled around the year 400, mentions pepper as a spice for most main dishes. In the Roman Empire, black pepper was relatively expensive but was readily available and used more frequently in foods than either salt or sugar. During the Middle Ages, trade routes deteriorated and the use of pepper declined somewhat, but it continued to be a profitable trade item. In addition to black pepper, long pepper and tailed pepper have been used commonly as food spices in various cultures. In some local cooking, such as that of West Africa, Mexico, and southeast Asia, pepper leaves are used for flavoring stews, to wrap meat for grilling, or eaten raw. In recent decades, pink pepper has become more popular in cookery, used as a sprinkling on salads, meats, stews, and exotic fruits and chocolates.
In Tang Dynasty China, cubeb was used as a condiment. Arabic books from the 9th century mention cubeb, and it was introduced to Arabic cuisine as a flavoring by the next century. Cubeb arrived in North Africa and Europe from India in the 14th century via Arab traders and became a valuable spice, ground for seasoning of pastries, meat, soups, and sauces. More recently, cubeb pepper has been used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West.
It has been claimed that during the Middle Ages, pepper was used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat, but experts now doubt this. Pepper at that time was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who had easy access to unspoiled meat. And people then were aware that eating spoiled food would make them ill. Similarly, the belief that pepper was used as a preservative is doubtful: at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the antimicrobial properties are minimal. In addition, salt is a much more effective preservative and was readily available.
Szechuan pepper, of course, has been used commonly in Asian cooking, especially the Szechuan cuisine of southwestern China, producing a citrus flavor and a hot, tingling, numbing effect. It has the property of transforming other flavors tasted together with it or shortly after. Water pepper leaves have a pungent, burning, peppery taste and are used as a vegetable in Japan and other eastern Asian cuisines.
Medicinal Use
Black pepper and long pepper have been used for centuries in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, in which they have been ingredients in preparations for rejuvenation and detoxification. Pepper also has been used in amulets to protect against disease and other threats. Pepper appears in early Buddhist texts as one of the few medicines that a monk was allowed to carry. They believed it to cure illnesses such as constipation, toothaches, oral abscesses, sunburn, eye problems, and insomnia.
Betel pepper (P. betle leaves are still used in parts of India to wrap betel palm nut slices; its sap helps to release the stimulating effect of the betel. Conversely, roots of another species, kava (P. methysticum), is used as a socializing drink in areas of the Pacific because of its calming and mild euphoric effects, which are somewhat similar to those of alcohol and benzodiazepines.
People in many cultures take black pepper orally for headache, dizziness, stuffy nose, sinus infection, asthma, bronchitis, upset stomach, diarrhea, gas, colic, menstrual pain, weight loss, cancer, vitiligo, decreased sex drive, and arthritis. The oil is inhaled to prevent falls, to help with smoking cessation, and for trouble swallowing. Pepper is applied to the skin for itchiness, pain, and infections. Black pepper oil is used in blended massage oils or bath oils to improve circulation, resolve bruising, and ease joint and muscle aches. It is a popular aromatherapy component in diffusers for warming winter use.
Pepper's main constituent, piperine, has been studied for its potential to increased absorption of vitamins, beta-carotene, and iron, and research is under way to look at other possible physiological effects, including improvements in cholesterol levels, blood sugar control, and brain and gut health. Studies in animals have shown antioxicant properties, and at least one human study showed that black pepper combined with turmeric and ginger had anti-inflammatory effects.
Other Uses
Cubeb pepper has been used to flavor cigarettes for over a century. Pink pepper is used in candles and room sprays, as well as in personal care products. Piper is a model genus for scientific research in ecology and evolutionary biology due to its diversity and ecological importance, with some of the obligate and facultative mutualist species making them ideal systems for research on the evolution of symbiosis. Many types of pepper plants are used in garden as ornamentals in subtropical regions. The vines also are used as an ivy in temperate areas. Smaller species such as Celebes pepper (P. ornatum) can be indoor potted plants.
Some pepper varieties have been used by the indigenous populations in areas of Panama and Colombia to intoxicate fish, making them easier to catch.
Unsustainable logging of tropical primary forests is threatening a number of peppers. In the forests of Ecuador, for which comprehensive data exists, more than a dozen pepper species are known to be on the edge of extinction. In contrast, however, some other Piper species such as spiked pepper (P. aduncum have been distributed widely through human activity and have actually become major invasive species in certain areas.
Pepper fragrances for men (primarily black pepper):
10th Avenue Karl Antony Box Office
Abercrombie & Fitch 1892 Yellow, Fierce Icon
Acqua di Parma Cedro di Taormina
l'Amande Coriandolo
Aramis Gentleman, Impeccable
Avon Black Suede Hot, Black Suede Intense, Full Speed Supersonic, Unplugged
Axe Harmony
Burberry The Beat
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria
Carolina Herrera Bad Boy
Cartier Declaration Essence LE
Chanel Allure Sport
C.O. Bigelow Elixir Black Pepper
Demeter Burn
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Dr. Vranjes Firenze Gigember e Estragone, Vetiver e Poivre
Dunhill Icon Elite
Elite Model Attitute
Ésika Imperium
Eternal Gentleman Noble Spirit
Eudora Club 6 Cassino, Club 6 VIP
Frederic M Sport
Henrik Vibskov Type B
Hermès Terre d'Hermes
In the Box Barbarian, Terra
Jafra Xclusive
Jequiti Uzon Black, Uzon Magnetic
Jil Sander Strictly Night
Jimmy Choo Intense
Kenzo l'Eau LE
Kiotis Intense
Korres Mythology Tharros
Lambretta
Mahogany Next
Marc Jacobs Bang
Marc Joseph Unvo
Milton Lloyd No. 3 by Mean-Marie
Paul Smith Sunshine Edition
Perfumer's Workshop Zipped Rebel
Phytoderm Domini
Ramon Monegal Tristan
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Rival
Salvatore Ferragamo F, Uomo
Santa Lucia To Conquering
Scottish Fine Soaps Co. Thistle & Black Pepper
Sélection Excellence No. 62
Shirley May Compass
Superdry Orange
Thera Cosméticos Kiéve
Tonatto Albi
Ulric de Varens Hot! Brown
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme
Zara Black Pepper & Cedarwood, Blue Spirit, For Him, Frayed Edge, Legend Iron, Man Silver, Metallic Spirit, Nightfall Blue, Noble Palo Santo, Soft Haze, Sport 421, Tobacco Intense Dark
Pink pepper fragrances for men:
l'Acqua di Fiori Golf
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca Citrus Cedro
Alfa Romeo Red
Apple Ultra Flight
Arno Sorel Shaman Platinum
Automobili Lamborghini L2
Avon Homem Power
Axe Instinct
Azzaro Chrome LE 2014, Hot Pepper
Cartier Declaration
Cerruti 1881 Essentiel, 1881 Intense
Chanel Allure Edition Blanche, Bleu, Eau Fraichissante pour l'Ete
Corinne Cobson Orange-Bergamot
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana l'Amoureux
Dunhill 51.3 N
Eudora for Life
Geo. F. Trumper Havana
Jequiti Elixir
Johan B Sensual Intense
Joop! Homme Wild
Korres Tharros
Mansfield Tam Tam
Marc Jacobs Bang
Michael Bublé
Nino Amaddeo Terriblamant
Panouge Boldness
Prima Materia 5 Dragon
Pull & Bear Buddy Fraiche
Rituals Palace d'Ambre
Rock & Republic
Roja 51
s. Oliver Sport 1
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Libre
Zara 11.0
Peppertree fragrances for men:
Cerruti 1881 Signature
David Haris Cachemere Platinum
Escada Magnetism
Jafra Valferra Spirit
Cubeb or tailed pepper fragrances for men:
John Varvatos Vintage
O Boticario Uomini Black
Salvador Dali 2010
Xerjoff Shooting Stars Dhofar
Szechuan pepper masculine fragrances:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct, First Instinct Extreme
Alexandria Été Sauvage
Amouage Journey
Avon Lucky Me Intense
Azzaro Chrome United
Bagirro Tuxedo Blue
Bvlgari Yasep
By Kilian Dark Lord
Calvin Klein Eternity Aqua, Obsessed, Obsessed Intense
Carolina Herrera Men Sport
Celebon Typhon
Cerruti 1881 Bella Notte
David Beckham Homme
Davidoff Cool Water Wave
Dior Sauvage, Sauvage Very Cool
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Italian Zest
Emanuel Ungaro
Ermenegildo Zegna Talent
Etro ManRose
Eudora Carbon Speed
French Attitude Hector
Gerard Monet La Brise
Giorgio Armani Diamonds, Diamonds Black Carat, Diamonds He LE
Gritti Decimo
Hermès Terre d'Hermes Eau Intense Vetiver
Hugo Boss Orange
IKKS Burning for You
Jacques Battini Sport Xtreme
John Varvatos XX Artisan
Linn Young Updo Chic
Masaki Matsushima mat;homme
Mauboussin M Generation
Mercedes-Benz Infinite Spicy
Molsheim Beluga
Nikos Sculpture God's Night
O Boticário Quasar Next Star Wars The Mandalorian, Zaad Santal
Oriflame Ultimate
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Eder
Perry Ellis Red
La Rive Body Like a Man
Sapil Rave
Swiss Arabian Spirit Absolute
Thera Cosméticos Kitinos
Tolteca Omeyocan
Tom Ford Noir Anthracite
Tous Man
Victoria's Secret Platinum, Very Sexy, Very Sexy Platinum
Yves St. Laurent Opium
Zaharoff Business Over Pleasure
Zara Cool Heights
Japanese pepper fragrances (unisex):
Di Ser Hana Matsuri, Kagiroi
Masaki Matsushima Fleur de Sansho
Water pepper fragrances (unisex):
DS & Durga Pale Grey Mountain, Small Black Lake
Thomas Kosmala Sève Nouvelle
Today, on Thanksgiving Day, when many folks are feasting on good food, I thought it was appropriate to write about pepper in perfumery.
Pepper (Piper nigrum) is a perennial climbing vine (liana) in the family Piperaceae, thought to have originated in the Malabar region of southwest India. It grows to a height of up to 4m when supported. The original stem produces numerous lateral branches, and runner shoots arise from the base. Leaves are thick and have variable shapes and sizes. Pepper blooms with many tiny flowers, generally in May and June, and produces bunches of berries, each vine producing 1-1.5 kg of seeded berries (called peppercorns) every year. The pepper seed is distributed in the wild mainly by birds, but also by bats.
There are several varieties of pepper-producing plants, but only the fruit of P. nigrum is legally called pepper for exportation and sale. Wild peppers have a pantropical distribution and are most commonly found in the understory of lowland tropical forests. Pepper is cultivated commercially in India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Cambodia, Vietnam, Malaysia, Madagascar, Brazil, and Cameroon. 300,000 tons of pepper are produced each year, accounting for about a quarter of the total global spice trade. Vietnam is the largest producer and exporter of pepper. The largest number of Piper species are found in the Americas (700), with about 300 species in southern Asia, 40 species in the South Pacific, and 15 species in Africa. Each of these area groups seems to be monophyletic (derived from a common genetic ancestor).
The name Piperaceae most likely was derived from the Sanskrit term pippali (which was used to describe the long pepper species P. longum), the Latin piper, and Old English pipor.
A pepper plant produces all four different types of pepper used in perfumery: green, black, white, or red peppercorns can be obtained from the same plant, depending upon the maturity of the peppercorns when harvested, and each contains its own essential oil.
- Green pepper is obtained by preventing the immature green berries from maturing by canning them, keeping them in a moisturized state, and/or treating them with sulfur dioxide. They are then dried quickly at high temperature to preserve the color. They also can be eaten fresh or in brine.
- Black pepper is obtained by harvesting the berries just before maturity. The berries are sometimes cooked briefly in hot water, which speeds the work of browning enzymes during subsequent drying. They are then allowed to sun-dry, wrinkle, harden, and turn black, fermenting very slightly.
- White pepper is the seed of the ripe fruit of the plant. It is a pepper that is allowed to mature before harvest, soaked in water for about a week ('retting') to allow removal of its pericarp, and then dried. It is the mildest and sweetest pepper.
- Red pepper is harvested after 9 months of ripening, with the peppercorns dried in the shade and either treated with the same color-preserving techniques as used with green peppercorns or preserved in brine and vinegar.
Two other species of Piper used for fragrances are the long pepper (or Indonesian pepper) (P. longum) and the cubeb pepper (or round, tailed, Java, or grey pepper) (P. cubeba or P. guineense). The long pepper is more closely related to black pepper botanically and in its piquant smell.
Cubeb is mostly grown in Java and Sumatra. The fruits of both are gathered before they ripen and are then dried. For commercial trade, cubeb usually consists of whole dried berries, similar in appearance to black peppercorns but with stalks ('tails') attached. The berries are hard and wrinkled and range from grey-brown to almost black in color. It has been mentioned in writing at least since the 4th century BC, usually included as an ingredient in aromatic mixtures with cinnamon and cassia. For centuries, Javanese cubeb growers protected their monopoly of the trade by scalding the berries to sterilize them, ensuring that the vines could not be cultivated elsewhere.
There are also two species in the woody-shrub Rutaceae family, unrelated to the Pipers and related to citrus fruits, which are used as well in perfumery: the Timut pepper(Zanthoxylum alatum), with grapefruit accents, and Szechuan (or Sichuan) peppers (Zanthoxylum species). Szechuan pepper varieties are grown in China, Taiwan, Japan, Korea, western India, Indonesia, Sumatra, Malaysia, the Philippines, and throughout the Himalayas of Nepal, Tibet, and Bhutan. Also closely related to the Szechuan pepper is the Japanese pepper (Z. piperitum), known sometimes as the Japanese prickly ash. Freshly harvested Timut, Szechuan, and Japanese peppers are left out to dry in the sun before processing.
Additionally used in perfumery is 'pink' pepper, the berries of the Peruvian pepper tree (Schinus molle) or the closely related Brazilian or 'peppertree' pepper (S. terebinthifolius). Pink pepper frequently is termed 'false pepper' because it is not hot. It is in the family Anacardiaceae, which includes the cashews, and its trees are native to Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay, Peru, and Chile. It now grows mainly in Madagascar, New Caledonia, and Reunion Island, but it also has been introduced to the southern United States and Hawaii. The fruit of this tree is dried when ripe.
The pink pepper tree was considered sacred by the Incas. It has been documented in texts since the 5th century but did not become very popular until the 20th century. The terebinthifolius was said to have been introduced as an ornamental plant in 1891 in Florida, from where it spread rapidly, gaining the name 'Florida Holly.' Its name derives from the Greek word for lentisque trees that produce mastic, probably because it and pink pepper trees produce a similar secretion. The chemical constituent that is thought to produce most of their mild scent is carene.
Water pepper (Persicaria hydropiper), also called marshpepper and unrelated to the previously discussed peppers, is a plant of the family Polygonaceae. It is an annual herb bush. Native to Europe, temperate Asia, and North America, it is also found in Australia and New Zealand. The aromatic oil used in perfumery is distilled from the leaves.
History
Pepper, the 'King of Spices,' was documented in Indian cooking since at least 2000 BC. It also was well known in ancient Egypt and Assyria. The lost ancient port city of Muziris, in the western Indian state of Kerala, was famous for exporting black pepper and was mentioned in a number of classical historical sources for its trade with Egypt, Mesopotamia, Yemen, the Levant, Greece, and the Roman Empire. Pepper was often called 'black gold' and was used as a form of commodity money.
Archeologists found black peppercorns stuffed in the nostrils of the mummified Ramesses II, placed there after his death in 1213 BC. Black pepper and long pepper were known in Greece by the 4th century BC. By the time of the early Roman Empire, open-ocean trading with India's Malabar Coast was common, with travel timed to take advantage of predictable monsoon winds. Returning from India, the ships traveled up the Red Sea, and the cargo was then carried overland or through the Nile-Red Sea canal to the Nile River. There it was barged to Alexandra and then shipped to Rome and from to other parts of Europe.
When Rome was besieged by Alaric, king of the Visigoths, in the 5th century, he demanded 3,000 pounds of pepper as part of the ransom for the city. After the fall of Rome, the Persians and then the Arabs took over the central part of the spice trade from India. From the Mediterranean, pepper had been one of the first spices to arrive in Europe, and in the Middle Ages it began to play a major role in European cuisine. By the end of the Middle Ages, the trade was firmly controlled by Italian powers, especially Venice and Genoa. Pepper was quite expensive at that time, and it was the search for this precious spice which partially motivated the great voyages of exploration of the colonial empires, including the trips of Columbus and Vasco de Gama.
Initially the Portuguese gained some control of the spice trade on the Arabian sea, with the Treaty of Tordesillas giving them exclusive legal rights to the area of the world where black pepper originated. However, other trade networks successfully continued to import enormous quantities of pepper through Alexandria and Italy, as well as around Africa, and by the 17th century the Portuguese had lost almost all of their Indian trade to the Dutch and English. As pepper supplies for Europe increased, the price declined, and pepper eventually became an everyday seasoning among common citizens.
Pepper also was known in China by the 2nd century BC, according to reputed reports of the explorer Tang Meng. By the 3rd century, black pepper had appeared in Chinese texts, but it was not widely known there until around the 12th century, when it became a popular cooking ingredient for the wealthy and powerful. Marco Polo wrote of its popularity in China in the 13th century; and in the early 15th century an Admiral Zheng He returned with a huge amount of black pepper in his fleet's ships, making the luxury item much more of a commodity for general use.
Use in Perfumery
Most pepper oil is made in Western Europe and North America from imported black pepper. Pepper essential oil is produced by steam distillation of the dried and crushed berries, yielding around 1-3% by weight of the colorless to pale greenish-grey oil. Initially fluid, the oil becomes more viscous with aging. Less often the oil is obtained by supercritical CO2 extraction, which gives an extremely pure product that expresses the pepper scent most fully and accurately.
Overall, black pepper is most often associated with spicy, bracing, woody, earthy, aromatic notes that bring freshness and add nuance to other notes, including citruses (especially bergamot, mandarin, and lemon), other spices (ginger, clove, coriander, rosemary, clary sage, fennel), florals (lavender, geranium), sandalwood, and benzoin. Black pepper most often appears in the top notes of a fragrance. Despite study, the exact molecules that provide the pepper aroma remain a mystery, but it is thought that the main aromatic constituents are eugenol, limonene, beta-caryophyllenes, and alpha- and beta-pinenes. Other components include myrcene, para-cymene, linalool, cineol, cresols, and piperonal. Pink pepper and black pepper are used frequently in fragrances for both men and women, with the others used less often.
Black pepper and white pepper have a common spicy, woody tone, with white pepper being more intense and warmer, almost animalic. Unlike black pepper, white pepper's note runs through all phases of a perfume, participating in the top, heart, and base notes. White pepper especially gives a warm, spicy aspect to a perfume, blending well with woody, chypre, and oriental notes.
Timut pepper is very bright, with a lemony scent and pronounced grapefruit accents. Szechuan pepper oil has a bright, zesty, herbal, slightly fruity character. When most pure, it also has an animalic and metallic note. Oil from the related Japanese peppercorns is more citrusy.
Pink pepper has a fresh, delicate, floral-herbal, lemony accent somewhat reminiscent of lavender and bergamot, sometimes with a light rose or blackcurrant nuance. It is sweet-spicy, with hints of pine, anise, and menthol. It acts mainly in the top notes of a composition (but can also appear in the heart notes) and has been widely used by perfumers, frequently in combination with citruses, to add sparkle and 'height' without being too striking. Pink pepper essential oil has been about twice as expensive as superior-quality black pepper oil, but its price has been decreasing; and recently the pink pepper presence has become as ubiquitous as musk or rose in perfumes (especially those of Chanel, Trresor, and Yves St. Laurent). While traditional distillation techniques produced bottom-heavy essences of pink pepper, the soft technique yields a purer aroma with more sparkling top notes. A trend report in 2012 by Scentsy.com declared pink pepper to be a 'note of the future.' Said Tom Pastre of Creatique, a fragrance consulting firm, "Pink pepper is appropriate for these challenging times because it is uplifting and has a certain optimism to it. It's bold and zesty but has a warmth that's comforting. It is the contrasts that make it exciting."
Cubeb pepper aroma is described as pleasant and aromatic, somewhat similar to allspice, sometimes with a slight camphoraceous odor. Cubeb is the most fragrant of all known peppers and can seem overpowering to Western noses, so it is infrequently used in scent compositions for European and American markets. Cubeb essential oil sometimes is adulterated with oil of other Piper species, so perfumers must be cautious in obtaining it.
Water pepper has very little aroma and is a bit bright but not floral. It is described as similar to Szechuan pepper but somewhat more 'clean' and less pungent.
Many oriental perfumes with a bright, spicy accord have contained relatively high percentages of black pepper oil. Since the 1980s, black pepper has also appeared in fougère and citrus colognes for men. Until the recent appearance of black pepper mono-aromas such as Marc Jacobs Bang and Molton Brown Black Pepper, the highest known concentrations of black pepper oil were 6% in Ralph Lauren Extreme Polo Sport and 5% in Caron Parfum Sacre, with a number of others, such as Cerutti 1881 and Guerlain Homme having 1-2%. Higher percentages of black pepper have been more common in masculine fragrances.
Because the exact odorants producing a 'peppery' smell have still not been isolated and defined exactly, there are very few synthetic pepper materials manufactured. Givaudan produced 'pepperwood' (dimethylcarbamate, a linalool derivative), which has a bright, diffusive aspect that is said to be quite close to that of black pepper. The other synthetic that is commonly used, poivrol, actually smells more like fresh wood shavings than pepper.
Culinary Use
Culinary use of peppers for at least 9,000 years has been documented, with peppercorn remains found among food refuse in caves. In The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire of the first century BC, Edward Gibbon wrote that pepper was "a favorite ingredieint of the most expensive Roman cookery. The Apicius, a recipe collection compiled around the year 400, mentions pepper as a spice for most main dishes. In the Roman Empire, black pepper was relatively expensive but was readily available and used more frequently in foods than either salt or sugar. During the Middle Ages, trade routes deteriorated and the use of pepper declined somewhat, but it continued to be a profitable trade item. In addition to black pepper, long pepper and tailed pepper have been used commonly as food spices in various cultures. In some local cooking, such as that of West Africa, Mexico, and southeast Asia, pepper leaves are used for flavoring stews, to wrap meat for grilling, or eaten raw. In recent decades, pink pepper has become more popular in cookery, used as a sprinkling on salads, meats, stews, and exotic fruits and chocolates.
In Tang Dynasty China, cubeb was used as a condiment. Arabic books from the 9th century mention cubeb, and it was introduced to Arabic cuisine as a flavoring by the next century. Cubeb arrived in North Africa and Europe from India in the 14th century via Arab traders and became a valuable spice, ground for seasoning of pastries, meat, soups, and sauces. More recently, cubeb pepper has been used as a flavoring agent for gins and cigarettes in the West.
It has been claimed that during the Middle Ages, pepper was used to conceal the taste of partially rotten meat, but experts now doubt this. Pepper at that time was a luxury item, affordable only to the wealthy, who had easy access to unspoiled meat. And people then were aware that eating spoiled food would make them ill. Similarly, the belief that pepper was used as a preservative is doubtful: at the concentrations present when pepper is used as a spice, the antimicrobial properties are minimal. In addition, salt is a much more effective preservative and was readily available.
Szechuan pepper, of course, has been used commonly in Asian cooking, especially the Szechuan cuisine of southwestern China, producing a citrus flavor and a hot, tingling, numbing effect. It has the property of transforming other flavors tasted together with it or shortly after. Water pepper leaves have a pungent, burning, peppery taste and are used as a vegetable in Japan and other eastern Asian cuisines.
Medicinal Use
Black pepper and long pepper have been used for centuries in Indian Ayurvedic medicine, in which they have been ingredients in preparations for rejuvenation and detoxification. Pepper also has been used in amulets to protect against disease and other threats. Pepper appears in early Buddhist texts as one of the few medicines that a monk was allowed to carry. They believed it to cure illnesses such as constipation, toothaches, oral abscesses, sunburn, eye problems, and insomnia.
Betel pepper (P. betle leaves are still used in parts of India to wrap betel palm nut slices; its sap helps to release the stimulating effect of the betel. Conversely, roots of another species, kava (P. methysticum), is used as a socializing drink in areas of the Pacific because of its calming and mild euphoric effects, which are somewhat similar to those of alcohol and benzodiazepines.
People in many cultures take black pepper orally for headache, dizziness, stuffy nose, sinus infection, asthma, bronchitis, upset stomach, diarrhea, gas, colic, menstrual pain, weight loss, cancer, vitiligo, decreased sex drive, and arthritis. The oil is inhaled to prevent falls, to help with smoking cessation, and for trouble swallowing. Pepper is applied to the skin for itchiness, pain, and infections. Black pepper oil is used in blended massage oils or bath oils to improve circulation, resolve bruising, and ease joint and muscle aches. It is a popular aromatherapy component in diffusers for warming winter use.
Pepper's main constituent, piperine, has been studied for its potential to increased absorption of vitamins, beta-carotene, and iron, and research is under way to look at other possible physiological effects, including improvements in cholesterol levels, blood sugar control, and brain and gut health. Studies in animals have shown antioxicant properties, and at least one human study showed that black pepper combined with turmeric and ginger had anti-inflammatory effects.
Other Uses
Cubeb pepper has been used to flavor cigarettes for over a century. Pink pepper is used in candles and room sprays, as well as in personal care products. Piper is a model genus for scientific research in ecology and evolutionary biology due to its diversity and ecological importance, with some of the obligate and facultative mutualist species making them ideal systems for research on the evolution of symbiosis. Many types of pepper plants are used in garden as ornamentals in subtropical regions. The vines also are used as an ivy in temperate areas. Smaller species such as Celebes pepper (P. ornatum) can be indoor potted plants.
Some pepper varieties have been used by the indigenous populations in areas of Panama and Colombia to intoxicate fish, making them easier to catch.
Unsustainable logging of tropical primary forests is threatening a number of peppers. In the forests of Ecuador, for which comprehensive data exists, more than a dozen pepper species are known to be on the edge of extinction. In contrast, however, some other Piper species such as spiked pepper (P. aduncum have been distributed widely through human activity and have actually become major invasive species in certain areas.
Pepper fragrances for men (primarily black pepper):
10th Avenue Karl Antony Box Office
Abercrombie & Fitch 1892 Yellow, Fierce Icon
Acqua di Parma Cedro di Taormina
l'Amande Coriandolo
Aramis Gentleman, Impeccable
Avon Black Suede Hot, Black Suede Intense, Full Speed Supersonic, Unplugged
Axe Harmony
Burberry The Beat
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria
Carolina Herrera Bad Boy
Cartier Declaration Essence LE
Chanel Allure Sport
C.O. Bigelow Elixir Black Pepper
Demeter Burn
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Dr. Vranjes Firenze Gigember e Estragone, Vetiver e Poivre
Dunhill Icon Elite
Elite Model Attitute
Ésika Imperium
Eternal Gentleman Noble Spirit
Eudora Club 6 Cassino, Club 6 VIP
Frederic M Sport
Henrik Vibskov Type B
Hermès Terre d'Hermes
In the Box Barbarian, Terra
Jafra Xclusive
Jequiti Uzon Black, Uzon Magnetic
Jil Sander Strictly Night
Jimmy Choo Intense
Kenzo l'Eau LE
Kiotis Intense
Korres Mythology Tharros
Lambretta
Mahogany Next
Marc Jacobs Bang
Marc Joseph Unvo
Milton Lloyd No. 3 by Mean-Marie
Paul Smith Sunshine Edition
Perfumer's Workshop Zipped Rebel
Phytoderm Domini
Ramon Monegal Tristan
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Rival
Salvatore Ferragamo F, Uomo
Santa Lucia To Conquering
Scottish Fine Soaps Co. Thistle & Black Pepper
Sélection Excellence No. 62
Shirley May Compass
Superdry Orange
Thera Cosméticos Kiéve
Tonatto Albi
Ulric de Varens Hot! Brown
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme
Zara Black Pepper & Cedarwood, Blue Spirit, For Him, Frayed Edge, Legend Iron, Man Silver, Metallic Spirit, Nightfall Blue, Noble Palo Santo, Soft Haze, Sport 421, Tobacco Intense Dark
Pink pepper fragrances for men:
l'Acqua di Fiori Golf
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca Citrus Cedro
Alfa Romeo Red
Apple Ultra Flight
Arno Sorel Shaman Platinum
Automobili Lamborghini L2
Avon Homem Power
Axe Instinct
Azzaro Chrome LE 2014, Hot Pepper
Cartier Declaration
Cerruti 1881 Essentiel, 1881 Intense
Chanel Allure Edition Blanche, Bleu, Eau Fraichissante pour l'Ete
Corinne Cobson Orange-Bergamot
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana l'Amoureux
Dunhill 51.3 N
Eudora for Life
Geo. F. Trumper Havana
Jequiti Elixir
Johan B Sensual Intense
Joop! Homme Wild
Korres Tharros
Mansfield Tam Tam
Marc Jacobs Bang
Michael Bublé
Nino Amaddeo Terriblamant
Panouge Boldness
Prima Materia 5 Dragon
Pull & Bear Buddy Fraiche
Rituals Palace d'Ambre
Rock & Republic
Roja 51
s. Oliver Sport 1
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Libre
Zara 11.0
Peppertree fragrances for men:
Cerruti 1881 Signature
David Haris Cachemere Platinum
Escada Magnetism
Jafra Valferra Spirit
Cubeb or tailed pepper fragrances for men:
John Varvatos Vintage
O Boticario Uomini Black
Salvador Dali 2010
Xerjoff Shooting Stars Dhofar
Szechuan pepper masculine fragrances:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct, First Instinct Extreme
Alexandria Été Sauvage
Amouage Journey
Avon Lucky Me Intense
Azzaro Chrome United
Bagirro Tuxedo Blue
Bvlgari Yasep
By Kilian Dark Lord
Calvin Klein Eternity Aqua, Obsessed, Obsessed Intense
Carolina Herrera Men Sport
Celebon Typhon
Cerruti 1881 Bella Notte
David Beckham Homme
Davidoff Cool Water Wave
Dior Sauvage, Sauvage Very Cool
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Italian Zest
Emanuel Ungaro
Ermenegildo Zegna Talent
Etro ManRose
Eudora Carbon Speed
French Attitude Hector
Gerard Monet La Brise
Giorgio Armani Diamonds, Diamonds Black Carat, Diamonds He LE
Gritti Decimo
Hermès Terre d'Hermes Eau Intense Vetiver
Hugo Boss Orange
IKKS Burning for You
Jacques Battini Sport Xtreme
John Varvatos XX Artisan
Linn Young Updo Chic
Masaki Matsushima mat;homme
Mauboussin M Generation
Mercedes-Benz Infinite Spicy
Molsheim Beluga
Nikos Sculpture God's Night
O Boticário Quasar Next Star Wars The Mandalorian, Zaad Santal
Oriflame Ultimate
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Eder
Perry Ellis Red
La Rive Body Like a Man
Sapil Rave
Swiss Arabian Spirit Absolute
Thera Cosméticos Kitinos
Tolteca Omeyocan
Tom Ford Noir Anthracite
Tous Man
Victoria's Secret Platinum, Very Sexy, Very Sexy Platinum
Yves St. Laurent Opium
Zaharoff Business Over Pleasure
Zara Cool Heights
Japanese pepper fragrances (unisex):
Di Ser Hana Matsuri, Kagiroi
Masaki Matsushima Fleur de Sansho
Water pepper fragrances (unisex):
DS & Durga Pale Grey Mountain, Small Black Lake
Thomas Kosmala Sève Nouvelle
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Aftershaves
The two main ingredients in most aftershaves are alcohol and witch hazel, both acting as antiseptics and astringents. Alcohol tightens the skin and closes pores so that bacteria can't invade. Witch hazel also has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Unlike alcohol, which dries the skin and damages its natural barrier function, witch hazel is a moisturizer. It improves skin hydration, elasticity, and softness. The alcohol used can be ethanol or methanol. Aftershaves with alcohol tend to have a stronger scent.
Roman barbers, whose trade was developed when Roman legionaries became the first soldiers required to be clean-shaven and short-haired, were said to apply a plaster made from materials including spider web soaked in vinegar and oil and perfumed with lavender. This mix was thought to have some antiseptic, healing, and moisturizing qualities. Actual aftershave liquids were introduced initially in the 18th century by barbers, who used their high alcohol content (the only known effective antiseptic then) to kill bacteria and decrease the transmission of disease from one client to another by shaving instruments that frequently caused nicks and cuts. Being clean-shaven became fashionable and beards became much less common at that time, but many men did not have the tools for shaving themselves and relied on going to the barber for beard removal. Early aftershaves also sometimes contained witch hazel and bay rum. Subsequently aftershaves became popular because of the tingling and revitalizing effect caused by the alcohol and fragrance together. Some speculate that the first commercial men's aftershaves simply represented a new use of women's cosmetic beauty washes, pastes, and 'washballs' for the skin.
As new, sharper types of steel razor appeared and made shaving more efficient and comfortable, perfumers and hairdressers also saw a new market for their products. The perfumer Charles Lillie advertised in 1744 a 'Persian (or Naples) soap' that he claimed was soothing following a shave, and others like 'Paris Pearl Water' were said to freshen and brighten men's skin. In 1752, a J. Emon advertised a powder that he said was 'good for tender faces' after shaves; and in 1801, Elenora's Lavo Cream was claimed to be 'particularly agreeable to Gentlemen after shaving, as it cools and heals the remaining heats.' Jean-Jacques Perret, credited with inventing the first guard razor in 1762, also wrote a book titled "The Art of Learning to Shave Oneself,' in which he touted the use of post-shave colognes. By the 1850s Victorian age, a large number of aftershave lotions and scents were available, including the widely advertised Rowlands' Kalydor, which was 'found greatly refreshing to the complexion, dispelling the cloud of languor and relaxation, allaying all irritability and heat, and immediately affording the pleasing sensation attendant on restored elasticity and healthful state of the skin.'
In the 19th century manufacturers began to use claims of aftershave efficacy based on scientific knowledge, in line with the increasing public interest in science. For example, Louis Pasteur discovered disease-causing germs in 1822 and found that alcohol killed them, which stimulated its use in aftershaves. Listerine, now popular as a mouthwash, was first marketed as an aftershave, 'because Listerine used full strength is a deadly enemy of germs.' In the 1830s, the perfumer Edouard Pinaud was contracted by the Hungarian Cavalry to develop a product to combat men's skin infections from shaving in the field, and he came up with Lilac Vegetal, which was used both as an aftershave and as a body splash between baths. Shortly thereafter, Napoleon II gave Pinaud the title of Royale Parfumeur, and aftershaves soon became very popular throughout European society. Other ingredients gradually were added to aftershaves in the 19th century, including glycerin. Unfortunately, some of them at that time also included poisonous potassium cyanide.
Before the mid-20th century, commercial men's fragrances for shaving mostly were limited to typical barbershop aftershaves such as Bay Rum and Florida Water. But with World War II experiences, men came home more accustomed to using products that kept them clean-shaven and fresh-smelling, and by the 1950s such products as Aqua Velva, Seaforth!, Old Spice, and Canoe had become quite popular. With the launch of the top-selling Revlon scent 'Charlie' in 1973, American fragrances in general became more 'sporty' and less dependent upon emulating traditional European perfumes, and the associated aftershave market exploded.
An aftershave provides a soothing finish to a shave. For normal skin, a liquid aftershave (splash or lotion) generally works well. For oily skin, gel or a liquid with a moisturizer will help. If the skin is dry or winter air is dry and cold, a balm with a moisturizer is probably the best choice. Unlike cologne, which mostly is applied at pulse points, an aftershave is used on any shaved area. Before the aftershave, rinsing the face first with cold water removes residual lather and hairs, closes pores, tones the skin, and makes it less vulnerable to potentially harmful product additives. Wiping with witch hazel removes any further residue left behind by the water. Skin is then lightly dried and the aftershave is applied, spreading it around evenly and massaging gently to generate mild heat that aids absorption. Some experts recommend letting a little of the alcohol in a splash or lotion evaporate on the palms for around 5 seconds first to decrease its burning and drying effects.
The most common forms of aftershave are the liquid splash, lotion, balm, and gel. There is some overlap of these, of course, and various marketing strategies also confuse their distinctions.
Splash
This is an antiseptic liquid product. Most splashes contain alcohol, some up to 70% by volume, which helps to kill bacteria. They often also contain skin-conditioning allantoin and glycerin, as well as scents. They are designed generally to refresh and invigorated the skin, as well as reducing inflammation. They are not as suitable for sensitive or dry skin as other forms, and their skin tightening effect may promote ingrown hair. There are unscented and/or alcohol-free alternatives now available. Dermatologists now are more frequently recommending against use of splash aftershaves because the alcohol's antiseptic property is not needed as much as in the past and because its drying effect removes the natural oils that provide a barrier against skin wear and aging.
Lotion
Lotions are 'milder' versions of their corresponding splashes, with less alcohol and less drying effect. They are combinations of water, mineral oils, glycerin, myristyl propionate, aluminum starch, and fragrances. They are intended to primarily both refresh skin and prevent dryness, although many maintain some antiseptic qualities. Lotions typically have higher viscosity than their splash counterparts, but this varies. Most have scents that are more subtle than those of the splashes. Lotions are most often massaged into the skin with the hands but can be applied with pads or cotton balls. The glycerin in lotions sometimes can worsen acne. Although they are sometimes preferred by those with sensitive skin, lotions overall are the least popular type of aftershave.
Balm
Balms usually do not contain alcohol, since their focus is primarily to moisturize and nourish the skin rather than act as an astringent. Most are composed mainly of glycerin, aloe vera, and allantoin. They sometimes use other natural substances such as tea tree oil to give a tingling and cleansing effect somewhat similar to that of alcohol. Many of them contain carrier oils such as coconut, jojoba, soy, avocado, and castor oil, at concentrations intended to mimic the natural sebum from sebaceous glands and to be absorbed within a few minutes rather than leaving the skin feeling oily. Some balms contain witch hazel for astringent and toning properties. The viscosity of balms can be equivalent to that of lotions, but they usually are thicker and creamy or even a paste or semi-solid. Balms are especially popular with those who do not want to 'feel the burn' and those with skin that is sensitive and prone to razor burn/irritation or that tends to be very dry. Balms generally are lighter in scent intensity and longevity than the other forms. Some have cooling agents to provide more razor burn relief. Balms are applied like lotions, but they are absorbed more slowly.
Gel
Gels provide coolness and moisture to delicate skin, with faster absorption than other aftershave forms. They seem to perform best in humid climates. Gels are the most soothing for aftershave soreness. Some contain added antibacterial compounds.
Common aftershave ingredients:
-water
-alcohol(s): antiseptic, astringent
-witch hazel: antiseptic, astringent, toner
-stearate/citrate: antiseptic, sometimes as alternative to alcohol
-allantoin: anti-inflammatory; conditions, moisturizes, protects, enhances loss of dead skin cells
-glycerin or glycerol: smooths, lubricates, hydrates
-propylene glycol (1,2-propanediol): moisturizes, conditions, prevents moisture loss; solvent, decreases product viscosity
-isopropyl myristate: conditions, cleanses; stabilizes products, increases viscosity, prevents caking
-myristyl proprionate: conditions; slows product deterioration
-lanolin: moisturizes, lubricates, softens
-dipropylene glycol: maintains solution, decreases viscosity
-glyceryl stearate: lubricates, decreases moisture loss; emulsifies
-carbomer: distributes solids, prevents emulsion separation
-mineral oil: moisturizes, softens, conditions, provides soft feel; stabilizes scent
-acetate: promotes healing, sunscreen
-phthalate: moisturizes
-aluminum starch: prevents product caking
-menthol: cools, numbs irritated skin
-coloring
-fragrances, including some unnamed
-oils/botanical ingredients (including vitamins such as Vitamin E, aloe vera, shea butter, kokum butter, chamomile, grapefruit seed extract, lavender): hydrating, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial or antifungal, calming and soothing, wound healing, skin protecting
The two main ingredients in most aftershaves are alcohol and witch hazel, both acting as antiseptics and astringents. Alcohol tightens the skin and closes pores so that bacteria can't invade. Witch hazel also has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. Unlike alcohol, which dries the skin and damages its natural barrier function, witch hazel is a moisturizer. It improves skin hydration, elasticity, and softness. The alcohol used can be ethanol or methanol. Aftershaves with alcohol tend to have a stronger scent.
Roman barbers, whose trade was developed when Roman legionaries became the first soldiers required to be clean-shaven and short-haired, were said to apply a plaster made from materials including spider web soaked in vinegar and oil and perfumed with lavender. This mix was thought to have some antiseptic, healing, and moisturizing qualities. Actual aftershave liquids were introduced initially in the 18th century by barbers, who used their high alcohol content (the only known effective antiseptic then) to kill bacteria and decrease the transmission of disease from one client to another by shaving instruments that frequently caused nicks and cuts. Being clean-shaven became fashionable and beards became much less common at that time, but many men did not have the tools for shaving themselves and relied on going to the barber for beard removal. Early aftershaves also sometimes contained witch hazel and bay rum. Subsequently aftershaves became popular because of the tingling and revitalizing effect caused by the alcohol and fragrance together. Some speculate that the first commercial men's aftershaves simply represented a new use of women's cosmetic beauty washes, pastes, and 'washballs' for the skin.
As new, sharper types of steel razor appeared and made shaving more efficient and comfortable, perfumers and hairdressers also saw a new market for their products. The perfumer Charles Lillie advertised in 1744 a 'Persian (or Naples) soap' that he claimed was soothing following a shave, and others like 'Paris Pearl Water' were said to freshen and brighten men's skin. In 1752, a J. Emon advertised a powder that he said was 'good for tender faces' after shaves; and in 1801, Elenora's Lavo Cream was claimed to be 'particularly agreeable to Gentlemen after shaving, as it cools and heals the remaining heats.' Jean-Jacques Perret, credited with inventing the first guard razor in 1762, also wrote a book titled "The Art of Learning to Shave Oneself,' in which he touted the use of post-shave colognes. By the 1850s Victorian age, a large number of aftershave lotions and scents were available, including the widely advertised Rowlands' Kalydor, which was 'found greatly refreshing to the complexion, dispelling the cloud of languor and relaxation, allaying all irritability and heat, and immediately affording the pleasing sensation attendant on restored elasticity and healthful state of the skin.'
In the 19th century manufacturers began to use claims of aftershave efficacy based on scientific knowledge, in line with the increasing public interest in science. For example, Louis Pasteur discovered disease-causing germs in 1822 and found that alcohol killed them, which stimulated its use in aftershaves. Listerine, now popular as a mouthwash, was first marketed as an aftershave, 'because Listerine used full strength is a deadly enemy of germs.' In the 1830s, the perfumer Edouard Pinaud was contracted by the Hungarian Cavalry to develop a product to combat men's skin infections from shaving in the field, and he came up with Lilac Vegetal, which was used both as an aftershave and as a body splash between baths. Shortly thereafter, Napoleon II gave Pinaud the title of Royale Parfumeur, and aftershaves soon became very popular throughout European society. Other ingredients gradually were added to aftershaves in the 19th century, including glycerin. Unfortunately, some of them at that time also included poisonous potassium cyanide.
Before the mid-20th century, commercial men's fragrances for shaving mostly were limited to typical barbershop aftershaves such as Bay Rum and Florida Water. But with World War II experiences, men came home more accustomed to using products that kept them clean-shaven and fresh-smelling, and by the 1950s such products as Aqua Velva, Seaforth!, Old Spice, and Canoe had become quite popular. With the launch of the top-selling Revlon scent 'Charlie' in 1973, American fragrances in general became more 'sporty' and less dependent upon emulating traditional European perfumes, and the associated aftershave market exploded.
An aftershave provides a soothing finish to a shave. For normal skin, a liquid aftershave (splash or lotion) generally works well. For oily skin, gel or a liquid with a moisturizer will help. If the skin is dry or winter air is dry and cold, a balm with a moisturizer is probably the best choice. Unlike cologne, which mostly is applied at pulse points, an aftershave is used on any shaved area. Before the aftershave, rinsing the face first with cold water removes residual lather and hairs, closes pores, tones the skin, and makes it less vulnerable to potentially harmful product additives. Wiping with witch hazel removes any further residue left behind by the water. Skin is then lightly dried and the aftershave is applied, spreading it around evenly and massaging gently to generate mild heat that aids absorption. Some experts recommend letting a little of the alcohol in a splash or lotion evaporate on the palms for around 5 seconds first to decrease its burning and drying effects.
The most common forms of aftershave are the liquid splash, lotion, balm, and gel. There is some overlap of these, of course, and various marketing strategies also confuse their distinctions.
Splash
This is an antiseptic liquid product. Most splashes contain alcohol, some up to 70% by volume, which helps to kill bacteria. They often also contain skin-conditioning allantoin and glycerin, as well as scents. They are designed generally to refresh and invigorated the skin, as well as reducing inflammation. They are not as suitable for sensitive or dry skin as other forms, and their skin tightening effect may promote ingrown hair. There are unscented and/or alcohol-free alternatives now available. Dermatologists now are more frequently recommending against use of splash aftershaves because the alcohol's antiseptic property is not needed as much as in the past and because its drying effect removes the natural oils that provide a barrier against skin wear and aging.
Lotion
Lotions are 'milder' versions of their corresponding splashes, with less alcohol and less drying effect. They are combinations of water, mineral oils, glycerin, myristyl propionate, aluminum starch, and fragrances. They are intended to primarily both refresh skin and prevent dryness, although many maintain some antiseptic qualities. Lotions typically have higher viscosity than their splash counterparts, but this varies. Most have scents that are more subtle than those of the splashes. Lotions are most often massaged into the skin with the hands but can be applied with pads or cotton balls. The glycerin in lotions sometimes can worsen acne. Although they are sometimes preferred by those with sensitive skin, lotions overall are the least popular type of aftershave.
Balm
Balms usually do not contain alcohol, since their focus is primarily to moisturize and nourish the skin rather than act as an astringent. Most are composed mainly of glycerin, aloe vera, and allantoin. They sometimes use other natural substances such as tea tree oil to give a tingling and cleansing effect somewhat similar to that of alcohol. Many of them contain carrier oils such as coconut, jojoba, soy, avocado, and castor oil, at concentrations intended to mimic the natural sebum from sebaceous glands and to be absorbed within a few minutes rather than leaving the skin feeling oily. Some balms contain witch hazel for astringent and toning properties. The viscosity of balms can be equivalent to that of lotions, but they usually are thicker and creamy or even a paste or semi-solid. Balms are especially popular with those who do not want to 'feel the burn' and those with skin that is sensitive and prone to razor burn/irritation or that tends to be very dry. Balms generally are lighter in scent intensity and longevity than the other forms. Some have cooling agents to provide more razor burn relief. Balms are applied like lotions, but they are absorbed more slowly.
Gel
Gels provide coolness and moisture to delicate skin, with faster absorption than other aftershave forms. They seem to perform best in humid climates. Gels are the most soothing for aftershave soreness. Some contain added antibacterial compounds.
Common aftershave ingredients:
-water
-alcohol(s): antiseptic, astringent
-witch hazel: antiseptic, astringent, toner
-stearate/citrate: antiseptic, sometimes as alternative to alcohol
-allantoin: anti-inflammatory; conditions, moisturizes, protects, enhances loss of dead skin cells
-glycerin or glycerol: smooths, lubricates, hydrates
-propylene glycol (1,2-propanediol): moisturizes, conditions, prevents moisture loss; solvent, decreases product viscosity
-isopropyl myristate: conditions, cleanses; stabilizes products, increases viscosity, prevents caking
-myristyl proprionate: conditions; slows product deterioration
-lanolin: moisturizes, lubricates, softens
-dipropylene glycol: maintains solution, decreases viscosity
-glyceryl stearate: lubricates, decreases moisture loss; emulsifies
-carbomer: distributes solids, prevents emulsion separation
-mineral oil: moisturizes, softens, conditions, provides soft feel; stabilizes scent
-acetate: promotes healing, sunscreen
-phthalate: moisturizes
-aluminum starch: prevents product caking
-menthol: cools, numbs irritated skin
-coloring
-fragrances, including some unnamed
-oils/botanical ingredients (including vitamins such as Vitamin E, aloe vera, shea butter, kokum butter, chamomile, grapefruit seed extract, lavender): hydrating, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial or antifungal, calming and soothing, wound healing, skin protecting
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Rosewood
Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), also known as pau rosa in Portuguese and by the perfumery name 'bois de rose,' is a tropical canopy tree species in the Laurel family (which also includes camphor, cassia, bay, and cinnamon). The tree is indigenous to parts of the rainforest of South America, including the Brazilian states of Amapá, Amazonas, and Pará and areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname. It is also found in parts of southern Mexico. It was 'discovered' by botanists in 1925, although there is evidence that the wood was exported to Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries for use in flooring, furniture, and guitars. The rosewood name comes from the pink-red color of the bark and wood and its floral rose-like smell. Other unrelated tree species are also called rosewood, such as Dalbergia nigra (Brazilian rosewood) and D. latifolia (Indian rosewood) because of their color, but they are only used for lumber and have never been a source for rosewood oil.
A. rosaeodora is a large evergreen tree, growing up to 30-50m in height and 2m in diameter. The tree grows slowly, maturing in 40-50 years. It produces oval leathery leaves and many very small yellow or pink to red flowers. The fruit is a purple drupe that is dispersed primarily by toucans.
Generally the trees are collected in the wild. After felling, they are cut into short logs that are stockpiled at a river bank. When river levels are high enough, the logs are floated downriver to a distillery. The distilleries often are mobile, sometimes by raft. At the distillery, the logs are shredded into chips, macerated in warm water, and then steam-distilled. All the parts of the rosewood tree, including the wood, the branches and twigs, the leaves, and the roots, are fragrant, but each part of the tree has a somewhat different scent. Until recently only the wood was used to produce oil for perfumery. Use of rosewood oil in perfumes began in the 18th century but exploded in the early 20th century, after its appearance in 1921 in the perfume Chanel Nº5.
The wood yields about 1% oil by weight. The oil is colorless to pale yellow or green. Smaller amounts of oil are extracted from the closely related species A. parviflora, and a somewhat similar oil is extracted from the unrelated Dalbergia sissoo tree in India. In perfumery, rosewood oil generally is used at a 10% dilution.
The rosewood oil olfactory profile is quite complex. The fresh, soft aroma is highly aromatic, earthy, rosy, and herbal-woody, with subtle camphoraceous, lemony, and fruity nuances. Rosewood most often appears in the heart or base notes of a fragrance but can be found occasionally in the top notes. During its long, mellow dry-down, the green-woody notes soften, deepen, and become sweeter. It is used in perfumery to round off sharp edges and to add harmony and body to formulations. Rosewood frequently is combined with florals (such as lavender, rhododendron, peony, lily, honeysuckle, and rose) and citrus (especially grapefruit, lemon, tangerine, and petitgrain), giving rich, spicy, peppery notes to compositions. It also blends well with sandalwood, cedarwood, coriander, rosemary, clary sage, frankincense, verbena, ylang-ylang, patchouli, vetiver, and geranium. Rosewood essential oil is thought to be safe: non-toxic, non-sensitizing, and non-irritating (except in the eyes).
Major fragrant components of the rosewood essential oil include the terpene linalool (up to 95%) - which gives the oil its smooth, woody, rosy aroma - and rubranine. Other chemical constituents that may also contribute include a-pinene, camphene, geraniol, neral, geranial, myrcene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, benzaldehyde, and a-terpineol. The linalool in the oil evaporates very slowly and acts as a fixative for perfumes.
World rosewood oil production now comes almost completely from Amazon areas of Brazil, with lesser production by Peru, and with other countries only contributing very minor amounts. The tree is an endangered species, with populations having declined rapidly due to destructive harvesting methods and to areas previously logged being vulnerable to fires and not seeing much regrowth. Although governments have enacted regulations since the 1980s to attempt to help conserve the species, enforcement has been very difficult, with 'timber mafias' continuing to illegally export the wood (mainly to China) for use in furniture, musical instruments, chess pieces, and chopsticks, and the oil for perfumery.
Rosewood continues to be the most-trafficked form of flora/fauna in the world. It was estimated that between 2003 and 2008, the total amount of oil exported from Brazil was over 4 times the quantity that could have been produced by legally harvested trees. According to academic studies, legal rosewood oil production today is 35-38 tons per year, around one tenth of the peak annual output of 300 tons in the late 1960s. The number of registered distilleries has fallen from more than 50 in the 1940s to 8. Yet even this reduced legal production translates to loss of 4,000 rosewood trees each year.
Under current Brazilian regulations, a tree must have a minimum diameter of 20cm for cutting, and each tree that is cut must be replaced by at least two replanted trees. The replanted trees come from commercial plant nurseries. Producers must have CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Export Certificates obtained at a country's capital, then must transport barrels of the oil across the jungle to airports from which it can be flown abroad. The entire process can take 3-4 months, adding to the high cost of the oil.
Early experiments with artificial propagation and cultivation most often failed, but more recent attempts have shown more success. With a number of projects dedicated to sustainable harvests, it has been found that cultivated trees as young as 4 years old can produce essential oils with nearly the same chemical composition as that from the wood of much older trees. Recently the companies that grow the trees and sell the oil, such as Floral Concept in France, have been using all the parts of the tree, attempting to find a balance that can produce desirable scents for perfumers. The companies claim that by chromatography, oil from the leaves shows only minor differences compared to the wood oil, and some perfumers predict that eventually rosewood leaf oil will completely replace the natural wood oil in fragrances.
Since the threat to rosewood has become well known, the unrelated Cinnamomum camphora (known as Ho Sho or Ho Leaf), a non-endangered species, has been used as a low-cost and sustainable alternative when a natural linalool is desired. Its oil has a similar but somewhat sharper scent. Synthetic linalool, a by-product of vitamin manufacturing introduced in the 1950s, has been improved gradually with successive generations and is now used in some perfumes, sometimes in combination with similar natural aromatic materials that also have a high linalool content and that mimic the natural rosewood profile. Even sophisticated 'noses' are finding it increasingly difficult to detect the difference between rosewood essential oil and the synthetics, and unscrupulous manufacturers sometimes market synthetics as the authentic oil. Other natural substances such as rose, geranium, coriander, rosemary, and palmarosa are used in some perfumes to 'boost' the effect of the small amounts of rosewood oil.
Linalool from rosewood also has been used in the past for flavoring soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, confectioneries, and medications, but since the 1960s the essential oil has been replaced nearly completely in these products by the petrochemical synthetic form.
When used in a diffuser for aromatherapy, rosewood oil blends have a rose-like fragrance that is said to be soothing, harmonizing, and relaxing, reducing stress and supposedly stimulating the immune system. Some believe the oil is an aphrodisiac and can treat frigidity and impotence. In skin care products such as massage oils, creams, and lipsticks, rosewood is reputed to have antiseptic, analgesic, anti-aging, and firming properties. Ayurvedic medicine has used the oil to treat a variety of ailments.
The wood has been used traditionally by indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin for making canoes, and they have put rosewood oil into their soaps and ointments.
Fragrances with significant rosewood for men:
Abercrombie & Fitch Fierce
Alexandria Alexander the Great
Alfred Dunhill Blend 30, D
Amouage Dia
Azzaro Chrome, Twin
Baldessarini Cool Force
Balenciaga Ho Hang
Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab Endymion
Bottega Verde Blu di Spezie
Brooks Brothers Black Fleece
Bvlgari Extreme
Burberry Brit Summer
Cacharel Amor
Calvin Klein Eternity, Obsession
Cartier Pasha
Cerruti 1881 Acqua Forte
Chanel Allure, Bois Noir, Egoiste
Comme Des Garcons Palisander
Cuba Paris Cuba Wild Heart
Davidoff Zino
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue, Light Blue Italian Zest
Eclectic Collections Factor, VO
Eisenbereg Palissandre Noir Secret
Emanuel Ungaro for Him
Faberlic Favorite, Pacific, Volcano
Fulton & Roark Tybee
Galimard Bel Canto
Gant Liquid
Genty Alto Mare
GianMarco Venturi Frames Essence
Gillette Blue Dive
Guerlain Habit Rouge
Halston Z
Henderson Classic City
Hermès Equipage, H24
Il Profvmo G11, Santal Rouge
Jimmy Choo Urban Hero
Jovoy Paris Boise
Karl Lagerfeld KL
Kenzo Electric Wave
Lancome Miracle
Lia Ruy Aristocrat
Mahogany Pimenta Rosa e Cedro
Mazolari Augusto
Milton Lloyd American Legend, London 2000
Molton Brown Tobacco Absolute
Oriflame Intense Oud
Paco Rabanne, PR Black XS, PR Invictus Aqua, PR XS
Pal Zileri Fougere e Legni, Venice Cup
Pascal Morabito Black Granit
Paul Smith Extreme Man
Pierre Cardin Revelation
PM Fedora, Gent
Police Pure New York Man, Titanium Wings
Red Lapidus Le Roy Soleil
Tuscany Forte
Versace Blue Jeans, Man, Versus
Xerjoff Kobe
Yardley Black Label
Rosewood (Aniba rosaeodora), also known as pau rosa in Portuguese and by the perfumery name 'bois de rose,' is a tropical canopy tree species in the Laurel family (which also includes camphor, cassia, bay, and cinnamon). The tree is indigenous to parts of the rainforest of South America, including the Brazilian states of Amapá, Amazonas, and Pará and areas of Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, French Guiana, Guyana, and Suriname. It is also found in parts of southern Mexico. It was 'discovered' by botanists in 1925, although there is evidence that the wood was exported to Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries for use in flooring, furniture, and guitars. The rosewood name comes from the pink-red color of the bark and wood and its floral rose-like smell. Other unrelated tree species are also called rosewood, such as Dalbergia nigra (Brazilian rosewood) and D. latifolia (Indian rosewood) because of their color, but they are only used for lumber and have never been a source for rosewood oil.
A. rosaeodora is a large evergreen tree, growing up to 30-50m in height and 2m in diameter. The tree grows slowly, maturing in 40-50 years. It produces oval leathery leaves and many very small yellow or pink to red flowers. The fruit is a purple drupe that is dispersed primarily by toucans.
Generally the trees are collected in the wild. After felling, they are cut into short logs that are stockpiled at a river bank. When river levels are high enough, the logs are floated downriver to a distillery. The distilleries often are mobile, sometimes by raft. At the distillery, the logs are shredded into chips, macerated in warm water, and then steam-distilled. All the parts of the rosewood tree, including the wood, the branches and twigs, the leaves, and the roots, are fragrant, but each part of the tree has a somewhat different scent. Until recently only the wood was used to produce oil for perfumery. Use of rosewood oil in perfumes began in the 18th century but exploded in the early 20th century, after its appearance in 1921 in the perfume Chanel Nº5.
The wood yields about 1% oil by weight. The oil is colorless to pale yellow or green. Smaller amounts of oil are extracted from the closely related species A. parviflora, and a somewhat similar oil is extracted from the unrelated Dalbergia sissoo tree in India. In perfumery, rosewood oil generally is used at a 10% dilution.
The rosewood oil olfactory profile is quite complex. The fresh, soft aroma is highly aromatic, earthy, rosy, and herbal-woody, with subtle camphoraceous, lemony, and fruity nuances. Rosewood most often appears in the heart or base notes of a fragrance but can be found occasionally in the top notes. During its long, mellow dry-down, the green-woody notes soften, deepen, and become sweeter. It is used in perfumery to round off sharp edges and to add harmony and body to formulations. Rosewood frequently is combined with florals (such as lavender, rhododendron, peony, lily, honeysuckle, and rose) and citrus (especially grapefruit, lemon, tangerine, and petitgrain), giving rich, spicy, peppery notes to compositions. It also blends well with sandalwood, cedarwood, coriander, rosemary, clary sage, frankincense, verbena, ylang-ylang, patchouli, vetiver, and geranium. Rosewood essential oil is thought to be safe: non-toxic, non-sensitizing, and non-irritating (except in the eyes).
Major fragrant components of the rosewood essential oil include the terpene linalool (up to 95%) - which gives the oil its smooth, woody, rosy aroma - and rubranine. Other chemical constituents that may also contribute include a-pinene, camphene, geraniol, neral, geranial, myrcene, limonene, 1,8-cineole, benzaldehyde, and a-terpineol. The linalool in the oil evaporates very slowly and acts as a fixative for perfumes.
World rosewood oil production now comes almost completely from Amazon areas of Brazil, with lesser production by Peru, and with other countries only contributing very minor amounts. The tree is an endangered species, with populations having declined rapidly due to destructive harvesting methods and to areas previously logged being vulnerable to fires and not seeing much regrowth. Although governments have enacted regulations since the 1980s to attempt to help conserve the species, enforcement has been very difficult, with 'timber mafias' continuing to illegally export the wood (mainly to China) for use in furniture, musical instruments, chess pieces, and chopsticks, and the oil for perfumery.
Rosewood continues to be the most-trafficked form of flora/fauna in the world. It was estimated that between 2003 and 2008, the total amount of oil exported from Brazil was over 4 times the quantity that could have been produced by legally harvested trees. According to academic studies, legal rosewood oil production today is 35-38 tons per year, around one tenth of the peak annual output of 300 tons in the late 1960s. The number of registered distilleries has fallen from more than 50 in the 1940s to 8. Yet even this reduced legal production translates to loss of 4,000 rosewood trees each year.
Under current Brazilian regulations, a tree must have a minimum diameter of 20cm for cutting, and each tree that is cut must be replaced by at least two replanted trees. The replanted trees come from commercial plant nurseries. Producers must have CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species) Export Certificates obtained at a country's capital, then must transport barrels of the oil across the jungle to airports from which it can be flown abroad. The entire process can take 3-4 months, adding to the high cost of the oil.
Early experiments with artificial propagation and cultivation most often failed, but more recent attempts have shown more success. With a number of projects dedicated to sustainable harvests, it has been found that cultivated trees as young as 4 years old can produce essential oils with nearly the same chemical composition as that from the wood of much older trees. Recently the companies that grow the trees and sell the oil, such as Floral Concept in France, have been using all the parts of the tree, attempting to find a balance that can produce desirable scents for perfumers. The companies claim that by chromatography, oil from the leaves shows only minor differences compared to the wood oil, and some perfumers predict that eventually rosewood leaf oil will completely replace the natural wood oil in fragrances.
Since the threat to rosewood has become well known, the unrelated Cinnamomum camphora (known as Ho Sho or Ho Leaf), a non-endangered species, has been used as a low-cost and sustainable alternative when a natural linalool is desired. Its oil has a similar but somewhat sharper scent. Synthetic linalool, a by-product of vitamin manufacturing introduced in the 1950s, has been improved gradually with successive generations and is now used in some perfumes, sometimes in combination with similar natural aromatic materials that also have a high linalool content and that mimic the natural rosewood profile. Even sophisticated 'noses' are finding it increasingly difficult to detect the difference between rosewood essential oil and the synthetics, and unscrupulous manufacturers sometimes market synthetics as the authentic oil. Other natural substances such as rose, geranium, coriander, rosemary, and palmarosa are used in some perfumes to 'boost' the effect of the small amounts of rosewood oil.
Linalool from rosewood also has been used in the past for flavoring soft drinks, alcoholic beverages, confectioneries, and medications, but since the 1960s the essential oil has been replaced nearly completely in these products by the petrochemical synthetic form.
When used in a diffuser for aromatherapy, rosewood oil blends have a rose-like fragrance that is said to be soothing, harmonizing, and relaxing, reducing stress and supposedly stimulating the immune system. Some believe the oil is an aphrodisiac and can treat frigidity and impotence. In skin care products such as massage oils, creams, and lipsticks, rosewood is reputed to have antiseptic, analgesic, anti-aging, and firming properties. Ayurvedic medicine has used the oil to treat a variety of ailments.
The wood has been used traditionally by indigenous peoples of the Amazon basin for making canoes, and they have put rosewood oil into their soaps and ointments.
Fragrances with significant rosewood for men:
Abercrombie & Fitch Fierce
Alexandria Alexander the Great
Alfred Dunhill Blend 30, D
Amouage Dia
Azzaro Chrome, Twin
Baldessarini Cool Force
Balenciaga Ho Hang
Black Phoenix Alchemy Lab Endymion
Bottega Verde Blu di Spezie
Brooks Brothers Black Fleece
Bvlgari Extreme
Burberry Brit Summer
Cacharel Amor
Calvin Klein Eternity, Obsession
Cartier Pasha
Cerruti 1881 Acqua Forte
Chanel Allure, Bois Noir, Egoiste
Comme Des Garcons Palisander
Cuba Paris Cuba Wild Heart
Davidoff Zino
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue, Light Blue Italian Zest
Eclectic Collections Factor, VO
Eisenbereg Palissandre Noir Secret
Emanuel Ungaro for Him
Faberlic Favorite, Pacific, Volcano
Fulton & Roark Tybee
Galimard Bel Canto
Gant Liquid
Genty Alto Mare
GianMarco Venturi Frames Essence
Gillette Blue Dive
Guerlain Habit Rouge
Halston Z
Henderson Classic City
Hermès Equipage, H24
Il Profvmo G11, Santal Rouge
Jimmy Choo Urban Hero
Jovoy Paris Boise
Karl Lagerfeld KL
Kenzo Electric Wave
Lancome Miracle
Lia Ruy Aristocrat
Mahogany Pimenta Rosa e Cedro
Mazolari Augusto
Milton Lloyd American Legend, London 2000
Molton Brown Tobacco Absolute
Oriflame Intense Oud
Paco Rabanne, PR Black XS, PR Invictus Aqua, PR XS
Pal Zileri Fougere e Legni, Venice Cup
Pascal Morabito Black Granit
Paul Smith Extreme Man
Pierre Cardin Revelation
PM Fedora, Gent
Police Pure New York Man, Titanium Wings
Red Lapidus Le Roy Soleil
Tuscany Forte
Versace Blue Jeans, Man, Versus
Xerjoff Kobe
Yardley Black Label
I didn’t realize that there were illegally trafficked wood or oil - in the fragrance world you always think of items that are banned due to animals cruelty or for skin irritation
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Yes, Europol has a site that mentions it.
Illicit trafficking in endangered plant species and varieties | Europol
European Union’s law enforcement agency
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Vanilla
Vanilla is a spice obtained from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from pods of the flat-leafed vanilla species (V. planifolia). The plant is a perennial climbing vine which grows up an existing tree, pole, or other support (such as a commercial trellis or 'shader') using aerial rootlets. Left alone, it grows as high as possible, with few flowers; but growers fold the higher parts of the plant downward every year, which greatly stimulates flowering. The plant receives all of its nutrients from soil and air and is not parasitic.
The Vanilla plant produces yellow, green-yellow, or creamy white flowers, which may not appear for up to 3 years after the vines are planted. Pollination is required for the plants to produce the flower and seed pod from which the spice is obtained. In natural conditions, the flowers are pollinated by bees and hummingbirds, but on plantations it is done manually. The growing season lasts about 2 months, but each flower last only a day or less and produces one fruit. The fruits (pods), initially resembling large green beans, are about 8mm wide by 15cm long and become brown-red to black when ripe. Inside is an oily thick liquid full of tiny seeds. If left on the plant, the pod ripens and opens at the end.
History
Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vanilla vine, using it for fragrance in temples and to put in protective amulets and medicinal oils. The current theory is that the Totonac people, who live on the east coast of Mexico in the present-day state of Veracruz, were among the first to domesticate vanilla, sometime before the 15th century. Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs and adopted their use of vanilla. They named the fruit tlīlxochitl, meaning 'black flower,' because it shrivels and turns black shortly after being picked. The Aztecs appear to have used it mainly for their royal chocolate drink called xocoatl. The modern name vanilla is derived from vainilla, the diminutive of the Spanish word vaina (from the Latin vagina for a sheath or pod), translated as 'little pod' and the name given to the fruit by Portuguese and Spanish explorers. The word entered the English language in 1754, when botanist Philip Miller wrote about the genus in his Gardener's Dictionary.
Conquistador Hernán Cortés is thought to have introduced both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s. There it became popular as a treatment for a number of diseases, as well as being used as a flavor additive for foods and drinks and a scent source for perfumes. The apothecary to Queen Elizabeth I, Hugh Morgan, is said to have introduced vanilla as the royal flavor. Plant cuttings were taken to France and England in an attempt to cultivate it and disrupt the Spanish monopoly on the trade, but the plants withered and died and never produced fruit.
Recently, however, another theory has been proposed for first use of vanilla. At the Bronze Age Canaanite site of Megiddo in Israel, archeologists have uncovered a tomb containing three jugs with traces of chemical compounds found in natural vanilla extract, including vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The lead researcher, Vanessa Linares, argues that only vanilla beans could have produced the amount of chemicals found in the jugs; and it is known that trade routes to the area from Asia and Africa were active at the time. This suggests that vanilla may have come there from orchids in East Africa, India, or Southeast Asia and that vanilla use is at least 3600 years old. There is no other record of vanilla in the ancient Middle East, so the theory has not been confirmed.
Belgian botanist Charles Francois Antoine-Morren discovered in 1837 that pollination was required for vanilla fruit production, and he pioneered a method of artificial pollination. However, it proved unworkable and was never used commercially. In 1841, Edmond Albius, a 12-year-old enslaved child who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, discovered that the plant could be hand-pollinated successfully, and his method is still used. With a beveled sliver of bamboo, an agricultural worker lifts the membrane separating the plant's male and female parts; then, using the thumb, they transfer the pollen from the anther to the stigma. The self-pollinated flower will then flower. Because of the short life of the flower, growers must inspect each plant closely every day.
Global Production
Three major species of vanilla are grown globally, all thought to have derived from an original species found in parts of what is now Mexico and Guatemala. They are V. planifolia or Bourbon vanilla, grown on Madagascar, Réunion, the Comoros, and other tropical areas of the Indian Ocean, as well as in Mexico; V. tahitensis or Tahitian vanilla, grown in the South Pacific; and V. pompona or West Indian vanilla, found in the West Indies, Central America, and South America. Smaller crops, primarily of Bourbon vanilla, are grown in Africa, India, and China. Virtually all vanilla is grown within a 20-degree band on either side of the Equator. Tahitian vanilla, whose stock originally came from Mexico, comprises only about 1% of total vanilla production. (Genetic modification changed its flavor and fragrance over time, and it is now considered to be its own species.) V. pompona has lower productivity and lower vanillin content, but it is more resistant to disease and flowers more readily. It is claimed that all West Indian vanilla stock came originally from a single cutting in the Jardin des Plant in Paris. There are dozens of other vanilla variants, but they are not used commercially.
Until the mid-19th century, Mexico had a monopoly on growing vanilla. In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla plants to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius for commercial planting, and they thrived. Soon the plants were sent on to the Comoros Islands, the Seychelles, and Madagascar. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros produced 200 tons of beans, about 80% of world growth that year.
After a tropical cyclone ravaged key vanilla croplands, the market price of the spice rose sharply in the 1970s and remained high through the early 1980s despite the commercial introduction of large amounts of Indonesian vanilla. In the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla distribution and prices since 1930 disbanded. Over the next few years, prices dropped 70%, but they rose sharply again after tropical cyclone Hudah his Madagascar in 2000. That cyclone event, political instability, and succeeding poor crop weather drove prices up by 2004, which brought new countries into the industry. Prices decreased after 2005 due to a large crop and decreased demand caused by production of imitation vanilla, but spiked again in 2017 following cyclone Enawo, which destroyed 80-95% of two of the largest vanilla-producing regions in Madagascar. There has been criticism since then of the low quality of what has been called 'hurricane vanilla,' produced from pods harvested prematurely in an attempt to meet market demand.
In 2018, world production of vanilla was nearly 7600 tons. The majority of the world's commercial vanilla is V. planifolia, commonly known as Bourbon vanilla (from the former name of Réunion, Île Bourbon) or Madagascar vanilla. Madagascar and Indonesia cultivate two-thirds of the world's supply of vanilla, with Madagascar alone producing around 40% of the pods each year. With greater political stability and government, Indonesia is likely to overtake Madagascar soon as the largest global producer.
Due to droughts, cyclones, and poor farming practices, there are continuing concerns about future global vanilla supplies and their prices. There is also much stealing from Madagascar farmers and world traders, causing further market instability and higher costs. Growers sometimes 'brand' their beans with pins or knives when they are green, and the marks remain after the beans are dried, allowing identification of their product if the stolen pods are ever recovered.
Some experts believe that the greatest threat to natural vanilla availability is the insatiable demand of consumers (especially those in the U.S., the world's largest consumer) for the beans. Each American consumes around 5.4g of vanilla, a little over 2 beans, every year, which adds up to over 638 million beans. The experts think that the answer, in the future, may be to move toward more environmentally friendly ways of producing greater amounts of artificial vanilla. Current methods use catalysts that pollute water runoff, but there is ongoing research into safer processes. This assumes that consumers will be content with simple vanillin flavor and scent. As it is, many corporations now substitute the newest generation of imitation vanillas for the natural one, calling it 'natural flavors' or 'natural scent' on the label. This allows pricing that undercuts the small growers, driving many of them to tear up their crops and leave their land to seek work in industrialized countries.
However, traditional vanilla may be making a comeback, thanks to consumer demand for 'all-natural' foods and beverages. Recently several giant food companies, including General Mills, Hershey’s, Kellogg’s, and Nestlé, vowed to eliminate artificial flavors and additives from many of their foods sold in the U.S. But with demand increasing, there is a marked trade imbalance. Production of Madagascar beans had plummeted to just over 1,000 tons, about half its normal harvest; and along with rising demand, prices more than doubled to $11,000 per kg. Says Carol McBride, category manager at spice supplier Symrise, "The amount of all the vanilla beans in the world is not sufficient to flavor everything that everyone wants to flavor." Consequently, flavor companies are working to find additional sources of higher-quality natural vanillin and to boost both the quantity of bean-derived vanilla. For example, Solvay makes a natural vanillin by using a proprietary strain of yeast to ferment ferulic acid; and Mane ferments eugenol from clove oil. But yields are generally low because high concentrations of both of those substrates are toxic to the microbes, as is vanillin itself, and because the microbes also produce undesirable byproducts from which obtaining the vanillin requires specialized or mutated strains and lengthy incubation.
Recently companies have developed processes to feed glucose to genetically modified microbes that produce vanillin glucoside, with a sugar group much less toxic to the organism. At the same time, researchers have identified cells that express a gene coding for a vanillin-producing enzyme in the beans, and this may allow plant geneticists to select orchid varieties that produce more vanillin or to develop transgenic plants with higher enzyme activity. It is unclear whether this type of GMO vanillin will be marketed in the near future, and there is concern about possible consumer backlash against their use.
To get around these problems, manufacturers currently are using increasing amounts of lignin from wood to produce vanillin. Borregaard in Norway operates a large 'biorefinery' that converts spruce trees into chemicals, with softwood lignin as a byproduct. This lignin can be converted via heat and pressure in the refinery to vanillin. The product is considered sustainable, although it can't be labeled commercially as 'natural' at this point.
Another approach being used by Symrise, Givaudan, Mane, and IFF is to set up major financed-grower programs in current production areas of the world, helping the smallholder farmers to maintain consistent output and quality and encouraging them to continue to farm. The operations also teach farmers how to preserve soil fertility, as well as sponsoring associated community education, healthcare, and food programs.
Harvest
The green vanilla pods reach full length in 4-6 weeks and then remain on their branches ripening for 8-9 months before being harvested, at which point they are green, scentless, and very bitter-tasting.
Vanilla fruit harvesting also is very labor-intensive and requires a great deal of knowledge and experience, since common methods for determining the maturity of the beans are unreliable: yellowing at the blossom end, the current commonly used indicator, occurs before beans accumulate their maximum vanillin concentrations. But beans left on the vine until they turn brown, while having higher higher vanillin levels, may split and have lower overall quality and market value. To ensure the finest scent, each pod must be picked by hand just as begins to show the first signs of splitting on the end. Says Tim McCollum of Madécasse, a vanilla trading company, "Hand pollination is a learned skill. Many farmers have been growing vanilla for three to four generations. Smallholder farmers have an absolute sixth sense as to when the orchids will bloom."
Curing
After being harvested, the pods are cured. Several methods for this exist, but all consist of four basic steps: killing, sweating, slow-drying, and conditioning.
Killing is the process of disrupting the tissue of the fruits to stop growth and initiate enzymatic reactions that produce the aroma (similar to the curing of tobacco). Killing may be accomplished by heating in hot water or in an oven, freezing, scratching, or exposure to direct sunlight (as was done by the Aztecs and is still done in Mexico). The different methods give different profiles of enzymatic activity and thus different scents. The 'Bourbon method' of plunging the beans into boiling water for a few minutes is used by most producers worldwide, since it gives a soft, pliable bean.
Sweating is a hydrolytic and oxidative process that causes chocolate-brown coloration but retention of 60-70% of the moisture content. It traditionally consists of keeping the pods densely stacked in wool or other cloth, which retains high humidity and a temperature of 113-149 degrees F, for 7-10 days. Daily exposure to the sun or repeated dipping of the fruits in hot water may also be used.
Drying is reduction of the bean moisture to 25-30% to prevent rotting and to lock in the aroma. It is achieved by exposure to air and traditionally also by exposure to alternating shade and sunlight. Often the fruits are laid out in the sun during the morning and returned to their boxes in the afternoon, or spread out on a wooden indoor rack, for 3-4 weeks. Drying is the most problematic stage, since unevenness in the process can lead to loss of vanillin.
Conditioning is done by wrapping the pods in paraffin paper and storing them for 5-6 months in closed boxes, where white 'frost' crystals of vanillin appear on the bean surfaces and the fragrance develops.
Once fully cured, the vanilla fruits are sorted and graded by quality and then allowed to rest for a month or two to finish developing full flavor and fragrance. Each country has its own grading system; and individual vendors, in turn, sometimes use their own criteria for describing the quality of the pods they offer for sale. In general, the grade is based on length, appearance (color, sheen, presence of any splits or blemishes), and moisture content. The highest-grade pods are used mainly for flavoring foods, especially by restaurant chefs, despite the fact that their visual appearance and moisture level do not necessarily guarantee the highest concentration of flavor and aroma molecules such as vanillin. Beans with localized defects are cut to remove blemishes. Lower-grade pods are used for purposes in which appearance is not as important, such as in the perfume industry and in production of vanilla flavoring extract.
Scent
Real seed pod extract is a complex mix of several hundred aromatic compounds. The scent of vanilla seems to be due mainly to a few chemical components, chiefly vanillin and piperonal (heliotropin), with significant contributions from other alcohols, esters, and aldehydes even though they are present at much lower concentrations. Cured pods contain about 2% vanillin. The aroma of natural vanilla from the plant varies depending upon the species, the growing conditions, and the processing - its own unique terroir. For instance, although the plants grown in the Indian Ocean and those grown in Mexico are essentially the same plant, major differences in the soil and climate produce significant scent differences.
Extractions of vanilla used in perfumery include:
Vanilla absolute or essential oil, dark brown, viscous, with crystals, and having the best and strongest scent, is extracted using organic solvents. GC-O analysis has shown the extract to have over 26 odor-active volatile compounds.
vanilla CO2, a creamy, pale yellow to tan substance, more often used in solid perfumes
vanilla oleoresin, with a rich, sweet scent, usually used in oil-based fragrances
vanilla water-soluble, weaker and very infrequently used
Perfumers discriminate among the various types of natural vanilla aromas in order to create their unique fragrances. Tahitian vanilla is the most rare and expensive one, because although its taste is milder, its scent is stronger. It contains much less vanillin and more heliotropin, which gives a sort of aniseed or fruity nuance. Some consider Bourbon vanilla grown in Mexico to be the world's best, while others believe that the spice from Réunion is the best. The aroma of V. planifolia is generally rich, smooth, creamy, and buttery. That of beans from the highlands of Sri Lanka is famously sweet and fruity, with a hint of slightly toasted cocoa.
Generally vanilla is described as having an initial soft woody scent, followed by floral, fruity, and spicy notes, sometimes with a hint of tobacco leaf. Used primarily with floral, fruity, woody, and spicy scents, it rounds off other scent notes, adding depth and an exotic character. When added to a fragrance composition, vanilla 'holds open' our nasal olfactory receptors, slowing down their sensation processing and giving more time for the perception and experience of other scent notes in the composition. Vanilla blends best with amber, labdanum, and florals such as ylang-ylang, but it also mixes well with citruses such as bergamot, grapefruit, lemon, mandarin, orange, and tangerine; with woods like cedar and sandalwood; and with spicy notes such as frankincense. Gifted noses say that real vanilla is noticeably earthier than the synthetic, with touches of treacle and a sort of 'booziness.' Probably due to its reputation as an aphrodisiac, vanilla frequently has been found in stereotypically 'sexy,' 'girly,' or 'younger' creations. A general consensus is that the warmth of vanilla is most appropriate in fragrances for the cooler months of the year.
Explanations for the marked recent popularity of vanilla-based fragrances have focused on the stresses of modern life causing a focus on pleasant childhood memories of 'better times' that are associated with the comforting smell of vanilla, as well as on the overall 'softer, more caring,' simpler, and purer tones of perfumes since the 1990s, as opposed to the thrusting dominance of 1980s compositions. In addition, medical researchers have shown that there are innate positive physiologic reactions to the scent of vanilla, with reductions in stress and anxiety, especially in cancer patients undergoing stressful treatment procedures. The modernization of gender views in perfumery also is a factor, with less cultural pressure now for men to avoid stereotypically 'feminine' notes like vanilla and rose.
Synthetic Vanillin
Synthetic ('imitation') vanilla essence usually consists of a solution of vanillin in ethanol. Vanillin was first isolated in 1858 by Nicolas-Theodore Gobley. In 1874, Gerdinand Tiemann and Wilhelm Haarmann identified its chemical structure, and they and others soon discovered that it could be extracted from glycosides of pine tree sap, clove oil, and rice bran. Eventually it was found that vanillin could be synthesized artificially from various raw materials, including lignin from plants and wood pulp, and even from cow feces. In the 1970s Rhône-Poulenc, now Solvay, commercialized a pure petrochemical method of production. Today about 85% of vanillin comes from the petrochemical precursors guaiacol and glyoxylic acid. It is estimated that over 95% of the 18,000 or more 'vanilla' products on the market actually just contain synthetic vanillin rather than natural vanilla.
Synthetic vanillin, a phenolic aldehyde, is very standardized in its molecular structure (C8H8O3) and properties. The single-scent note of chemical vanillin can't compare to the complex scent of true vanilla beans for use in perfumery, but it has been very popular nonetheless. It was first used in Jicky's original formula, but its fame exploded with the launch of Guerlain Shalimar in 1925, and its use shaped the perfumery class now known as Oriental.
Manufacturers sometimes adulterate vanilla products with cheaper material, such as vanillin from tonka beans. In the U.S., castoreum, an exudate from the castor sacs of beavers, has been approved as a food additive, and small amounts are used to mimic vanilla, often simply labeled 'natural flavoring.' It is employed in a similar manner to augment the scent of vanilla in perfumes.
Cooking and Other Uses
In addition to the extract, vanilla seeds and pods are both have been used in the cookery of many cultures, as well as in flavoring a variety of manufactured sweet foods and beverages, particularly chocolate (as well as caramel, strawberry, and coconut), confections, ice cream, yogurt, and bakery goods. Synthetic vanillin (and to a much lesser extent vanilla) is also used to flavor medicines and in industrial applications, such as for concealing the strong smells of rubber tires, paint, and cleaning products.
In many world cultures, vanilla has been used medicinally by ingestion, inhalation, and skin application for various ailments. Taken by inhalation, it is thought to be relaxing and soothing to the mind. Applied in a massage blend, it is considered to be an aphrodisiac and a treatment for frigidity and sterility. Some have believed that it has soothing and anti-inflammatory skin properties. And modern researchers in Germany have shown that the fragrance of vanilla calms by reducing the startle reflex in humans and other animals, an apparently essential property independent of any 'childhood associations.'
Most vanilla orchid species exude a sap from their cut stems and from where the beans are harvested which can cause moderate to severe contact dermatitis in plantation workers. Much less often, vanilla in perfumes and cosmetic products can cause skin reactions in sensitive individuals.
'Masculine' fragrances with significant vanilla include the following:
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo Mandorlo di Sicilia
Al Contrario Tiziana Terenzi
Architects Club Arquiste
Atelier des Ors Lune Feline
Chanel Allure Home Edition Blanche, Chanel Bleu
Coach Platinum
Creed Sublime Vanille
Dior Homme Intense
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Ermenegildo Zegna Bourbon Vanilla
Exuma Black Vanilla
Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur
Giorgio Armani Code Absolu
Givenchy Gentleman, Givenchy Pi
Hugo Boss No. 6
Imaginary Authors Memoirs of a Trespasser
Initio Absolute Aphrodisiac
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jeroboam Insulo
Jo Malone Vanilla & Anise
Karen Low Xchange Wonderman
Maison Margiela Replica By the Fireplace
Mancera Aoud Vanille
Marly Herod, Marly Layton, Marly Pegasus
Mau White Mau
MDCI l'Homme Aux Gants
Mercedes-Benz Select Night
l'Occitane Eau des Baux
Paco Rabanne Pure XS
Profumum Roma Dulcis in Fundo
Roja Dove Enigma
Tauer Vanilla Flash
Tom Ford Noir Extreme, Tom Ford Tobacco Vanille, Tom Ford Vanille Fatale
Valentino Uomo Intense
Versace Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Vintage Vanilla Intense
Yves St. Laurent Opium
Zara No Day
Vanilla is a spice obtained from orchids of the genus Vanilla, primarily from pods of the flat-leafed vanilla species (V. planifolia). The plant is a perennial climbing vine which grows up an existing tree, pole, or other support (such as a commercial trellis or 'shader') using aerial rootlets. Left alone, it grows as high as possible, with few flowers; but growers fold the higher parts of the plant downward every year, which greatly stimulates flowering. The plant receives all of its nutrients from soil and air and is not parasitic.
The Vanilla plant produces yellow, green-yellow, or creamy white flowers, which may not appear for up to 3 years after the vines are planted. Pollination is required for the plants to produce the flower and seed pod from which the spice is obtained. In natural conditions, the flowers are pollinated by bees and hummingbirds, but on plantations it is done manually. The growing season lasts about 2 months, but each flower last only a day or less and produces one fruit. The fruits (pods), initially resembling large green beans, are about 8mm wide by 15cm long and become brown-red to black when ripe. Inside is an oily thick liquid full of tiny seeds. If left on the plant, the pod ripens and opens at the end.
History
Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican people cultivated the vanilla vine, using it for fragrance in temples and to put in protective amulets and medicinal oils. The current theory is that the Totonac people, who live on the east coast of Mexico in the present-day state of Veracruz, were among the first to domesticate vanilla, sometime before the 15th century. Aztecs invading from the central highlands of Mexico conquered the Totonacs and adopted their use of vanilla. They named the fruit tlīlxochitl, meaning 'black flower,' because it shrivels and turns black shortly after being picked. The Aztecs appear to have used it mainly for their royal chocolate drink called xocoatl. The modern name vanilla is derived from vainilla, the diminutive of the Spanish word vaina (from the Latin vagina for a sheath or pod), translated as 'little pod' and the name given to the fruit by Portuguese and Spanish explorers. The word entered the English language in 1754, when botanist Philip Miller wrote about the genus in his Gardener's Dictionary.
Conquistador Hernán Cortés is thought to have introduced both vanilla and chocolate to Europe in the 1520s. There it became popular as a treatment for a number of diseases, as well as being used as a flavor additive for foods and drinks and a scent source for perfumes. The apothecary to Queen Elizabeth I, Hugh Morgan, is said to have introduced vanilla as the royal flavor. Plant cuttings were taken to France and England in an attempt to cultivate it and disrupt the Spanish monopoly on the trade, but the plants withered and died and never produced fruit.
Recently, however, another theory has been proposed for first use of vanilla. At the Bronze Age Canaanite site of Megiddo in Israel, archeologists have uncovered a tomb containing three jugs with traces of chemical compounds found in natural vanilla extract, including vanillin and 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde. The lead researcher, Vanessa Linares, argues that only vanilla beans could have produced the amount of chemicals found in the jugs; and it is known that trade routes to the area from Asia and Africa were active at the time. This suggests that vanilla may have come there from orchids in East Africa, India, or Southeast Asia and that vanilla use is at least 3600 years old. There is no other record of vanilla in the ancient Middle East, so the theory has not been confirmed.
Belgian botanist Charles Francois Antoine-Morren discovered in 1837 that pollination was required for vanilla fruit production, and he pioneered a method of artificial pollination. However, it proved unworkable and was never used commercially. In 1841, Edmond Albius, a 12-year-old enslaved child who lived on the French island of Réunion in the Indian Ocean, discovered that the plant could be hand-pollinated successfully, and his method is still used. With a beveled sliver of bamboo, an agricultural worker lifts the membrane separating the plant's male and female parts; then, using the thumb, they transfer the pollen from the anther to the stigma. The self-pollinated flower will then flower. Because of the short life of the flower, growers must inspect each plant closely every day.
Global Production
Three major species of vanilla are grown globally, all thought to have derived from an original species found in parts of what is now Mexico and Guatemala. They are V. planifolia or Bourbon vanilla, grown on Madagascar, Réunion, the Comoros, and other tropical areas of the Indian Ocean, as well as in Mexico; V. tahitensis or Tahitian vanilla, grown in the South Pacific; and V. pompona or West Indian vanilla, found in the West Indies, Central America, and South America. Smaller crops, primarily of Bourbon vanilla, are grown in Africa, India, and China. Virtually all vanilla is grown within a 20-degree band on either side of the Equator. Tahitian vanilla, whose stock originally came from Mexico, comprises only about 1% of total vanilla production. (Genetic modification changed its flavor and fragrance over time, and it is now considered to be its own species.) V. pompona has lower productivity and lower vanillin content, but it is more resistant to disease and flowers more readily. It is claimed that all West Indian vanilla stock came originally from a single cutting in the Jardin des Plant in Paris. There are dozens of other vanilla variants, but they are not used commercially.
Until the mid-19th century, Mexico had a monopoly on growing vanilla. In 1819, French entrepreneurs shipped vanilla plants to the islands of Réunion and Mauritius for commercial planting, and they thrived. Soon the plants were sent on to the Comoros Islands, the Seychelles, and Madagascar. By 1898, Madagascar, Réunion, and the Comoros produced 200 tons of beans, about 80% of world growth that year.
After a tropical cyclone ravaged key vanilla croplands, the market price of the spice rose sharply in the 1970s and remained high through the early 1980s despite the commercial introduction of large amounts of Indonesian vanilla. In the mid-1980s, the cartel that had controlled vanilla distribution and prices since 1930 disbanded. Over the next few years, prices dropped 70%, but they rose sharply again after tropical cyclone Hudah his Madagascar in 2000. That cyclone event, political instability, and succeeding poor crop weather drove prices up by 2004, which brought new countries into the industry. Prices decreased after 2005 due to a large crop and decreased demand caused by production of imitation vanilla, but spiked again in 2017 following cyclone Enawo, which destroyed 80-95% of two of the largest vanilla-producing regions in Madagascar. There has been criticism since then of the low quality of what has been called 'hurricane vanilla,' produced from pods harvested prematurely in an attempt to meet market demand.
In 2018, world production of vanilla was nearly 7600 tons. The majority of the world's commercial vanilla is V. planifolia, commonly known as Bourbon vanilla (from the former name of Réunion, Île Bourbon) or Madagascar vanilla. Madagascar and Indonesia cultivate two-thirds of the world's supply of vanilla, with Madagascar alone producing around 40% of the pods each year. With greater political stability and government, Indonesia is likely to overtake Madagascar soon as the largest global producer.
Due to droughts, cyclones, and poor farming practices, there are continuing concerns about future global vanilla supplies and their prices. There is also much stealing from Madagascar farmers and world traders, causing further market instability and higher costs. Growers sometimes 'brand' their beans with pins or knives when they are green, and the marks remain after the beans are dried, allowing identification of their product if the stolen pods are ever recovered.
Some experts believe that the greatest threat to natural vanilla availability is the insatiable demand of consumers (especially those in the U.S., the world's largest consumer) for the beans. Each American consumes around 5.4g of vanilla, a little over 2 beans, every year, which adds up to over 638 million beans. The experts think that the answer, in the future, may be to move toward more environmentally friendly ways of producing greater amounts of artificial vanilla. Current methods use catalysts that pollute water runoff, but there is ongoing research into safer processes. This assumes that consumers will be content with simple vanillin flavor and scent. As it is, many corporations now substitute the newest generation of imitation vanillas for the natural one, calling it 'natural flavors' or 'natural scent' on the label. This allows pricing that undercuts the small growers, driving many of them to tear up their crops and leave their land to seek work in industrialized countries.
However, traditional vanilla may be making a comeback, thanks to consumer demand for 'all-natural' foods and beverages. Recently several giant food companies, including General Mills, Hershey’s, Kellogg’s, and Nestlé, vowed to eliminate artificial flavors and additives from many of their foods sold in the U.S. But with demand increasing, there is a marked trade imbalance. Production of Madagascar beans had plummeted to just over 1,000 tons, about half its normal harvest; and along with rising demand, prices more than doubled to $11,000 per kg. Says Carol McBride, category manager at spice supplier Symrise, "The amount of all the vanilla beans in the world is not sufficient to flavor everything that everyone wants to flavor." Consequently, flavor companies are working to find additional sources of higher-quality natural vanillin and to boost both the quantity of bean-derived vanilla. For example, Solvay makes a natural vanillin by using a proprietary strain of yeast to ferment ferulic acid; and Mane ferments eugenol from clove oil. But yields are generally low because high concentrations of both of those substrates are toxic to the microbes, as is vanillin itself, and because the microbes also produce undesirable byproducts from which obtaining the vanillin requires specialized or mutated strains and lengthy incubation.
Recently companies have developed processes to feed glucose to genetically modified microbes that produce vanillin glucoside, with a sugar group much less toxic to the organism. At the same time, researchers have identified cells that express a gene coding for a vanillin-producing enzyme in the beans, and this may allow plant geneticists to select orchid varieties that produce more vanillin or to develop transgenic plants with higher enzyme activity. It is unclear whether this type of GMO vanillin will be marketed in the near future, and there is concern about possible consumer backlash against their use.
To get around these problems, manufacturers currently are using increasing amounts of lignin from wood to produce vanillin. Borregaard in Norway operates a large 'biorefinery' that converts spruce trees into chemicals, with softwood lignin as a byproduct. This lignin can be converted via heat and pressure in the refinery to vanillin. The product is considered sustainable, although it can't be labeled commercially as 'natural' at this point.
Another approach being used by Symrise, Givaudan, Mane, and IFF is to set up major financed-grower programs in current production areas of the world, helping the smallholder farmers to maintain consistent output and quality and encouraging them to continue to farm. The operations also teach farmers how to preserve soil fertility, as well as sponsoring associated community education, healthcare, and food programs.
Harvest
The green vanilla pods reach full length in 4-6 weeks and then remain on their branches ripening for 8-9 months before being harvested, at which point they are green, scentless, and very bitter-tasting.
Vanilla fruit harvesting also is very labor-intensive and requires a great deal of knowledge and experience, since common methods for determining the maturity of the beans are unreliable: yellowing at the blossom end, the current commonly used indicator, occurs before beans accumulate their maximum vanillin concentrations. But beans left on the vine until they turn brown, while having higher higher vanillin levels, may split and have lower overall quality and market value. To ensure the finest scent, each pod must be picked by hand just as begins to show the first signs of splitting on the end. Says Tim McCollum of Madécasse, a vanilla trading company, "Hand pollination is a learned skill. Many farmers have been growing vanilla for three to four generations. Smallholder farmers have an absolute sixth sense as to when the orchids will bloom."
Curing
After being harvested, the pods are cured. Several methods for this exist, but all consist of four basic steps: killing, sweating, slow-drying, and conditioning.
Killing is the process of disrupting the tissue of the fruits to stop growth and initiate enzymatic reactions that produce the aroma (similar to the curing of tobacco). Killing may be accomplished by heating in hot water or in an oven, freezing, scratching, or exposure to direct sunlight (as was done by the Aztecs and is still done in Mexico). The different methods give different profiles of enzymatic activity and thus different scents. The 'Bourbon method' of plunging the beans into boiling water for a few minutes is used by most producers worldwide, since it gives a soft, pliable bean.
Sweating is a hydrolytic and oxidative process that causes chocolate-brown coloration but retention of 60-70% of the moisture content. It traditionally consists of keeping the pods densely stacked in wool or other cloth, which retains high humidity and a temperature of 113-149 degrees F, for 7-10 days. Daily exposure to the sun or repeated dipping of the fruits in hot water may also be used.
Drying is reduction of the bean moisture to 25-30% to prevent rotting and to lock in the aroma. It is achieved by exposure to air and traditionally also by exposure to alternating shade and sunlight. Often the fruits are laid out in the sun during the morning and returned to their boxes in the afternoon, or spread out on a wooden indoor rack, for 3-4 weeks. Drying is the most problematic stage, since unevenness in the process can lead to loss of vanillin.
Conditioning is done by wrapping the pods in paraffin paper and storing them for 5-6 months in closed boxes, where white 'frost' crystals of vanillin appear on the bean surfaces and the fragrance develops.
Once fully cured, the vanilla fruits are sorted and graded by quality and then allowed to rest for a month or two to finish developing full flavor and fragrance. Each country has its own grading system; and individual vendors, in turn, sometimes use their own criteria for describing the quality of the pods they offer for sale. In general, the grade is based on length, appearance (color, sheen, presence of any splits or blemishes), and moisture content. The highest-grade pods are used mainly for flavoring foods, especially by restaurant chefs, despite the fact that their visual appearance and moisture level do not necessarily guarantee the highest concentration of flavor and aroma molecules such as vanillin. Beans with localized defects are cut to remove blemishes. Lower-grade pods are used for purposes in which appearance is not as important, such as in the perfume industry and in production of vanilla flavoring extract.
Scent
Real seed pod extract is a complex mix of several hundred aromatic compounds. The scent of vanilla seems to be due mainly to a few chemical components, chiefly vanillin and piperonal (heliotropin), with significant contributions from other alcohols, esters, and aldehydes even though they are present at much lower concentrations. Cured pods contain about 2% vanillin. The aroma of natural vanilla from the plant varies depending upon the species, the growing conditions, and the processing - its own unique terroir. For instance, although the plants grown in the Indian Ocean and those grown in Mexico are essentially the same plant, major differences in the soil and climate produce significant scent differences.
Extractions of vanilla used in perfumery include:
Vanilla absolute or essential oil, dark brown, viscous, with crystals, and having the best and strongest scent, is extracted using organic solvents. GC-O analysis has shown the extract to have over 26 odor-active volatile compounds.
vanilla CO2, a creamy, pale yellow to tan substance, more often used in solid perfumes
vanilla oleoresin, with a rich, sweet scent, usually used in oil-based fragrances
vanilla water-soluble, weaker and very infrequently used
Perfumers discriminate among the various types of natural vanilla aromas in order to create their unique fragrances. Tahitian vanilla is the most rare and expensive one, because although its taste is milder, its scent is stronger. It contains much less vanillin and more heliotropin, which gives a sort of aniseed or fruity nuance. Some consider Bourbon vanilla grown in Mexico to be the world's best, while others believe that the spice from Réunion is the best. The aroma of V. planifolia is generally rich, smooth, creamy, and buttery. That of beans from the highlands of Sri Lanka is famously sweet and fruity, with a hint of slightly toasted cocoa.
Generally vanilla is described as having an initial soft woody scent, followed by floral, fruity, and spicy notes, sometimes with a hint of tobacco leaf. Used primarily with floral, fruity, woody, and spicy scents, it rounds off other scent notes, adding depth and an exotic character. When added to a fragrance composition, vanilla 'holds open' our nasal olfactory receptors, slowing down their sensation processing and giving more time for the perception and experience of other scent notes in the composition. Vanilla blends best with amber, labdanum, and florals such as ylang-ylang, but it also mixes well with citruses such as bergamot, grapefruit, lemon, mandarin, orange, and tangerine; with woods like cedar and sandalwood; and with spicy notes such as frankincense. Gifted noses say that real vanilla is noticeably earthier than the synthetic, with touches of treacle and a sort of 'booziness.' Probably due to its reputation as an aphrodisiac, vanilla frequently has been found in stereotypically 'sexy,' 'girly,' or 'younger' creations. A general consensus is that the warmth of vanilla is most appropriate in fragrances for the cooler months of the year.
Explanations for the marked recent popularity of vanilla-based fragrances have focused on the stresses of modern life causing a focus on pleasant childhood memories of 'better times' that are associated with the comforting smell of vanilla, as well as on the overall 'softer, more caring,' simpler, and purer tones of perfumes since the 1990s, as opposed to the thrusting dominance of 1980s compositions. In addition, medical researchers have shown that there are innate positive physiologic reactions to the scent of vanilla, with reductions in stress and anxiety, especially in cancer patients undergoing stressful treatment procedures. The modernization of gender views in perfumery also is a factor, with less cultural pressure now for men to avoid stereotypically 'feminine' notes like vanilla and rose.
Synthetic Vanillin
Synthetic ('imitation') vanilla essence usually consists of a solution of vanillin in ethanol. Vanillin was first isolated in 1858 by Nicolas-Theodore Gobley. In 1874, Gerdinand Tiemann and Wilhelm Haarmann identified its chemical structure, and they and others soon discovered that it could be extracted from glycosides of pine tree sap, clove oil, and rice bran. Eventually it was found that vanillin could be synthesized artificially from various raw materials, including lignin from plants and wood pulp, and even from cow feces. In the 1970s Rhône-Poulenc, now Solvay, commercialized a pure petrochemical method of production. Today about 85% of vanillin comes from the petrochemical precursors guaiacol and glyoxylic acid. It is estimated that over 95% of the 18,000 or more 'vanilla' products on the market actually just contain synthetic vanillin rather than natural vanilla.
Synthetic vanillin, a phenolic aldehyde, is very standardized in its molecular structure (C8H8O3) and properties. The single-scent note of chemical vanillin can't compare to the complex scent of true vanilla beans for use in perfumery, but it has been very popular nonetheless. It was first used in Jicky's original formula, but its fame exploded with the launch of Guerlain Shalimar in 1925, and its use shaped the perfumery class now known as Oriental.
Manufacturers sometimes adulterate vanilla products with cheaper material, such as vanillin from tonka beans. In the U.S., castoreum, an exudate from the castor sacs of beavers, has been approved as a food additive, and small amounts are used to mimic vanilla, often simply labeled 'natural flavoring.' It is employed in a similar manner to augment the scent of vanilla in perfumes.
Cooking and Other Uses
In addition to the extract, vanilla seeds and pods are both have been used in the cookery of many cultures, as well as in flavoring a variety of manufactured sweet foods and beverages, particularly chocolate (as well as caramel, strawberry, and coconut), confections, ice cream, yogurt, and bakery goods. Synthetic vanillin (and to a much lesser extent vanilla) is also used to flavor medicines and in industrial applications, such as for concealing the strong smells of rubber tires, paint, and cleaning products.
In many world cultures, vanilla has been used medicinally by ingestion, inhalation, and skin application for various ailments. Taken by inhalation, it is thought to be relaxing and soothing to the mind. Applied in a massage blend, it is considered to be an aphrodisiac and a treatment for frigidity and sterility. Some have believed that it has soothing and anti-inflammatory skin properties. And modern researchers in Germany have shown that the fragrance of vanilla calms by reducing the startle reflex in humans and other animals, an apparently essential property independent of any 'childhood associations.'
Most vanilla orchid species exude a sap from their cut stems and from where the beans are harvested which can cause moderate to severe contact dermatitis in plantation workers. Much less often, vanilla in perfumes and cosmetic products can cause skin reactions in sensitive individuals.
'Masculine' fragrances with significant vanilla include the following:
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo Mandorlo di Sicilia
Al Contrario Tiziana Terenzi
Architects Club Arquiste
Atelier des Ors Lune Feline
Chanel Allure Home Edition Blanche, Chanel Bleu
Coach Platinum
Creed Sublime Vanille
Dior Homme Intense
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Ermenegildo Zegna Bourbon Vanilla
Exuma Black Vanilla
Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur
Giorgio Armani Code Absolu
Givenchy Gentleman, Givenchy Pi
Hugo Boss No. 6
Imaginary Authors Memoirs of a Trespasser
Initio Absolute Aphrodisiac
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jeroboam Insulo
Jo Malone Vanilla & Anise
Karen Low Xchange Wonderman
Maison Margiela Replica By the Fireplace
Mancera Aoud Vanille
Marly Herod, Marly Layton, Marly Pegasus
Mau White Mau
MDCI l'Homme Aux Gants
Mercedes-Benz Select Night
l'Occitane Eau des Baux
Paco Rabanne Pure XS
Profumum Roma Dulcis in Fundo
Roja Dove Enigma
Tauer Vanilla Flash
Tom Ford Noir Extreme, Tom Ford Tobacco Vanille, Tom Ford Vanille Fatale
Valentino Uomo Intense
Versace Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Vintage Vanilla Intense
Yves St. Laurent Opium
Zara No Day
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Barbershop Scent
The term 'barbershop scent' is used frequently, and fragrances that purport to represent it are very popular right now. But often it is unclear what exactly is meant by the term, and each person probably has his own idea of what it means. Some suggest that it implies scent memories of old-time barbershops and recreations of them. Others argue that there were actually very few scents involved with a barbershop experience, mainly just a few classic aftershave lotions such as Pinaud Clubman and Lilac Vegetal, Royall Bay Rhum, and Old Spice Original. And with traditional barbershops replaced more and more with unisex hair salons, do younger men even have any distinct memory of traditional barbershops and their associated smells? Perhaps the scents of a barbershop have simply become a style of smell associated mentally with a past tradition (and perhaps with a beloved elder relative such as a grandfather).
Classic Only
Those in the first camp of shavers agree that there are just a few legitimate barbershop scents and that the term is overused. They claim that an old barbershop simply smelled of a 'manly' mixture of talc, shampoos, hair tonics, Barbicide, clipper oil, smoke and ashtrays, dust, and cheap coffee - the smell of a small-town shop with comic books and men's magazines. And they propose that only vintage products used in the past in traditional barbershops comprise the category.
Nostalgia
Others think that anything inspired by or somehow reminiscent of a barbershop image is okay, such as Chanel Égoïste Platinum or Azzaro. Another example is Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir: although it is not typically used by barbers, Drakkar Noir employs notes and accords that resemble shaving products, its lavender and dry-herbal qualities suggesting those of common shaving soaps. These products, while not traditional, are thought to capture the 'vibe' of an old-time barbershop.
Fougères
Still others think of the term a bit vaguely as denoting a family of perfumes, primarily represented by the aromatic fougères and based on lavender (as well as coumarin and oakmoss and perhaps vetiver), such as Yves St. Laurent's Rive Gauche, Lagerfeld Classic, Bleu de Chanel, Penhaligon's English Fern, or the iconic Houbigant Fougère Royale. This is not really a surprising association, given that lavender soothes the skin and is an effective disinfectant, used frequently by early barbers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
It is said that in most of the 1900s, the average gentleman wasn't interested much in perfuming his body, leaning more toward being (or at least smelling) clean. Playing upon this trend, pioneers of archetypical modern masculinity who made early men's aftershaves and colognes aimed for scents suggesting cleanliness and shaped the behaviors of decades of succeeding luxury brands. In 1903, Merton E. White registered the 'Osage Rub' trademark for his hair tonic, and it was promoted with ads stating that 'all barbers get 10 cents per application.' Its crisp eucalyptus tone is repeated now in many modern products. At around the same time, William Andrews published a book titled 'At the Sign of the Barber's Pole: Studies in Hirsute History,' which proposed that barbershop fragrances were primarily based just upon sweetness and powder. This was thought to have derived from men's ancient use of floral waters and of hair powder made of wheat flour until the late 18th century.
Regardless of one's particular school of thought about the term, opinions about barbershops fragrances are always subjective; but nearly everyone agrees that for some reason, a stereotypical barbershop smell should be relatively potent and should have great longevity.
Barbershop Notes
In online discussions of barbershops smells, many have noted that when they have gotten a straight razor shave from a barber, he often used a sandalwood lather to soften the whiskers. The shave was frequently completed with something like a Pinaud tonic or a Lucky Tiger product. Whatever was used, it most often was sweet, herbal, spicy, fresh, and very powdery. According to polls of shavers, when the question is asked about what a barbershop scent smells like, the most-often noted individual ingredients were:
73% talcum powder
46% Pinaud Clubman
38% alcohol or disinfectant
26% leather
24% wood
24% sandalwood
This agrees with the word used most often to describe an American barbershop scent, which is 'powdery.' Scent notes named most often in this context include vanilla, musk, rose, orris, lavender, and white florals. In contrast, the tone of a European barbershop appears to be completely different. There, apparently, the predominant scent note is thought to be almond (such as in Cella, RazoRock p.160, and Proraso). But it is said that in Russian, Polish, and German neighborhoods, the predominant smell was Tabac; in Little Italy areas it was menthol and eucalyptus; and in Jewish quarters is was rosewater. Words commonly used to describe the overall quality of barbershop scents include aromatic, fresh, clean, and classy.
Some shaving product experts, including those who viewed the above poll results, divide current barbershops scents in general into two categories, powder and Pinaud.
Powdery Product Brands:
Chiseled Face Ghost Town Barber
Lather & Wood Barber Shop
Maggard's London Barber Shop
Mama Bear's Ye Olde Barbershop
Phoenix Artisan Accoutrements Clubguy
Wet Shaving Products Barbershop
Wet the Face Barbershop
Clubman-like Product Brands:
Clubman Shave Soap
Mike's Natural Soaps Barber Shop
PAA CaD (CK6 Formula)
PAA Good Vibrations (aka Boardwalk Barbershop)
Soap Commander Honor
Soap Smooth Barbershop
Other modern scents frequently noted to represent the barbershop experience in general are:
Barrister & Mann Seville
Catie's Bubbles Tonsorial Parlour
RazoRock New York
Dr. Jon's Classic
Classic products most often named by the public as representative include Dana Canoe, Royal Copenhagen, Brut, Shulton Old Spice, Paco Rabanne, and Tabac Original. In answer to a question about what would give the 'vibe' of a traditional European barbershop, the aftershave/colognes offered include 4711, English Leather, Pino Silvestre, Azzaro, and Christian Dior Eau Sauvage.
Modern Trends
Modern barbershops and salons have strayed somewhat from the original fougère and bay rum roots, reinventing the barbershop experience with use of products containing notes of sandalwood, geranium, rose, ambroxan, and white musk, typically more soapy or herbal than their predecessors. And current perfumers have taken this a step further, adding more citruses such as bergamot, orange blossom, and lemon to an attempt to give a sense of the freshness of just having been shaved. They also describe their compositions as attempts to represent the easy atmosphere of the barbershop, a place without pretensions where men can gather and relax with light conversation and stories. One example of this is Azzaro Chrome Legend, an aldehydic tea floral with a prominent green apple note; its fruity quality is somewhat amber-like, not unlike coumarin, and its notes interact in a simple, unassuming way that is consistent with the classic barbershop products.
Consensus
The current 'general consensus' men's barbershop fragrances include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia
Antiga Barbearia de Bairro Principe Real, ABdB Ribeira do Porto
Aqua Velva
Avon Wild Country (and var. others)
Azzaro
Boucheron Jaipur
British Sterling
Burberry Classic
Calvin Klein Eternity
Carolina Herrera Privé
Caron Le 3 Homme
Cerruti 1881
Chanel Bleu de Chanel, Chanel Égoïste Platinum
Christian Dior Eau Sauvage
Claus Porto Musgo Real
Comme des Garcons Dover Street Market
Codty Musk
Dana Canoe
Davidoff Cool Water
DS & Durga Burning Barbershop
English Leather
Fabergé Brut
Francis Kurkdjian Pluriel
Geo. F. Trumper Sandalwood, GFT Spanich Leather
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel
Guerlain Vetiver
Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir
Halston Z-14
Helmut Lang
Hermès Eau d'Hermès, Hermès Equipage
Houbigant Fougère Royale
Hugo Boss Bottle Night, HB Hugo
Jade East Swank
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
John Varvatos Vintage
Lucky Tiger
Martin Margiela At the Barber's
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac
Mennen Skin Bracer
O'Doud's Natural
Ogallala Bay Rum
Paco Rabanne
Penhaligon's English Fern, Pen's Sartorial
Pinaud Clubman, PC Citrus Musk, PC Lilac Vegetal
Pino Silvestre
Prada Amber
Ralph Lauren Polo
Royal Copenhagen
Shulton Old Spice Original
Taylor of Old Bond Street Sandalwood, TOBS Shaving Shop
Tom Ford Grey Vetiver
Truefitt & Hill Grafton
Yves St. Laurent Rive Gauche
The term 'barbershop scent' is used frequently, and fragrances that purport to represent it are very popular right now. But often it is unclear what exactly is meant by the term, and each person probably has his own idea of what it means. Some suggest that it implies scent memories of old-time barbershops and recreations of them. Others argue that there were actually very few scents involved with a barbershop experience, mainly just a few classic aftershave lotions such as Pinaud Clubman and Lilac Vegetal, Royall Bay Rhum, and Old Spice Original. And with traditional barbershops replaced more and more with unisex hair salons, do younger men even have any distinct memory of traditional barbershops and their associated smells? Perhaps the scents of a barbershop have simply become a style of smell associated mentally with a past tradition (and perhaps with a beloved elder relative such as a grandfather).
Classic Only
Those in the first camp of shavers agree that there are just a few legitimate barbershop scents and that the term is overused. They claim that an old barbershop simply smelled of a 'manly' mixture of talc, shampoos, hair tonics, Barbicide, clipper oil, smoke and ashtrays, dust, and cheap coffee - the smell of a small-town shop with comic books and men's magazines. And they propose that only vintage products used in the past in traditional barbershops comprise the category.
Nostalgia
Others think that anything inspired by or somehow reminiscent of a barbershop image is okay, such as Chanel Égoïste Platinum or Azzaro. Another example is Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir: although it is not typically used by barbers, Drakkar Noir employs notes and accords that resemble shaving products, its lavender and dry-herbal qualities suggesting those of common shaving soaps. These products, while not traditional, are thought to capture the 'vibe' of an old-time barbershop.
Fougères
Still others think of the term a bit vaguely as denoting a family of perfumes, primarily represented by the aromatic fougères and based on lavender (as well as coumarin and oakmoss and perhaps vetiver), such as Yves St. Laurent's Rive Gauche, Lagerfeld Classic, Bleu de Chanel, Penhaligon's English Fern, or the iconic Houbigant Fougère Royale. This is not really a surprising association, given that lavender soothes the skin and is an effective disinfectant, used frequently by early barbers of the late 19th and early 20th centuries.
It is said that in most of the 1900s, the average gentleman wasn't interested much in perfuming his body, leaning more toward being (or at least smelling) clean. Playing upon this trend, pioneers of archetypical modern masculinity who made early men's aftershaves and colognes aimed for scents suggesting cleanliness and shaped the behaviors of decades of succeeding luxury brands. In 1903, Merton E. White registered the 'Osage Rub' trademark for his hair tonic, and it was promoted with ads stating that 'all barbers get 10 cents per application.' Its crisp eucalyptus tone is repeated now in many modern products. At around the same time, William Andrews published a book titled 'At the Sign of the Barber's Pole: Studies in Hirsute History,' which proposed that barbershop fragrances were primarily based just upon sweetness and powder. This was thought to have derived from men's ancient use of floral waters and of hair powder made of wheat flour until the late 18th century.
Regardless of one's particular school of thought about the term, opinions about barbershops fragrances are always subjective; but nearly everyone agrees that for some reason, a stereotypical barbershop smell should be relatively potent and should have great longevity.
Barbershop Notes
In online discussions of barbershops smells, many have noted that when they have gotten a straight razor shave from a barber, he often used a sandalwood lather to soften the whiskers. The shave was frequently completed with something like a Pinaud tonic or a Lucky Tiger product. Whatever was used, it most often was sweet, herbal, spicy, fresh, and very powdery. According to polls of shavers, when the question is asked about what a barbershop scent smells like, the most-often noted individual ingredients were:
73% talcum powder
46% Pinaud Clubman
38% alcohol or disinfectant
26% leather
24% wood
24% sandalwood
This agrees with the word used most often to describe an American barbershop scent, which is 'powdery.' Scent notes named most often in this context include vanilla, musk, rose, orris, lavender, and white florals. In contrast, the tone of a European barbershop appears to be completely different. There, apparently, the predominant scent note is thought to be almond (such as in Cella, RazoRock p.160, and Proraso). But it is said that in Russian, Polish, and German neighborhoods, the predominant smell was Tabac; in Little Italy areas it was menthol and eucalyptus; and in Jewish quarters is was rosewater. Words commonly used to describe the overall quality of barbershop scents include aromatic, fresh, clean, and classy.
Some shaving product experts, including those who viewed the above poll results, divide current barbershops scents in general into two categories, powder and Pinaud.
Powdery Product Brands:
Chiseled Face Ghost Town Barber
Lather & Wood Barber Shop
Maggard's London Barber Shop
Mama Bear's Ye Olde Barbershop
Phoenix Artisan Accoutrements Clubguy
Wet Shaving Products Barbershop
Wet the Face Barbershop
Clubman-like Product Brands:
Clubman Shave Soap
Mike's Natural Soaps Barber Shop
PAA CaD (CK6 Formula)
PAA Good Vibrations (aka Boardwalk Barbershop)
Soap Commander Honor
Soap Smooth Barbershop
Other modern scents frequently noted to represent the barbershop experience in general are:
Barrister & Mann Seville
Catie's Bubbles Tonsorial Parlour
RazoRock New York
Dr. Jon's Classic
Classic products most often named by the public as representative include Dana Canoe, Royal Copenhagen, Brut, Shulton Old Spice, Paco Rabanne, and Tabac Original. In answer to a question about what would give the 'vibe' of a traditional European barbershop, the aftershave/colognes offered include 4711, English Leather, Pino Silvestre, Azzaro, and Christian Dior Eau Sauvage.
Modern Trends
Modern barbershops and salons have strayed somewhat from the original fougère and bay rum roots, reinventing the barbershop experience with use of products containing notes of sandalwood, geranium, rose, ambroxan, and white musk, typically more soapy or herbal than their predecessors. And current perfumers have taken this a step further, adding more citruses such as bergamot, orange blossom, and lemon to an attempt to give a sense of the freshness of just having been shaved. They also describe their compositions as attempts to represent the easy atmosphere of the barbershop, a place without pretensions where men can gather and relax with light conversation and stories. One example of this is Azzaro Chrome Legend, an aldehydic tea floral with a prominent green apple note; its fruity quality is somewhat amber-like, not unlike coumarin, and its notes interact in a simple, unassuming way that is consistent with the classic barbershop products.
Consensus
The current 'general consensus' men's barbershop fragrances include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia
Antiga Barbearia de Bairro Principe Real, ABdB Ribeira do Porto
Aqua Velva
Avon Wild Country (and var. others)
Azzaro
Boucheron Jaipur
British Sterling
Burberry Classic
Calvin Klein Eternity
Carolina Herrera Privé
Caron Le 3 Homme
Cerruti 1881
Chanel Bleu de Chanel, Chanel Égoïste Platinum
Christian Dior Eau Sauvage
Claus Porto Musgo Real
Comme des Garcons Dover Street Market
Codty Musk
Dana Canoe
Davidoff Cool Water
DS & Durga Burning Barbershop
English Leather
Fabergé Brut
Francis Kurkdjian Pluriel
Geo. F. Trumper Sandalwood, GFT Spanich Leather
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel
Guerlain Vetiver
Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir
Halston Z-14
Helmut Lang
Hermès Eau d'Hermès, Hermès Equipage
Houbigant Fougère Royale
Hugo Boss Bottle Night, HB Hugo
Jade East Swank
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
John Varvatos Vintage
Lucky Tiger
Martin Margiela At the Barber's
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac
Mennen Skin Bracer
O'Doud's Natural
Ogallala Bay Rum
Paco Rabanne
Penhaligon's English Fern, Pen's Sartorial
Pinaud Clubman, PC Citrus Musk, PC Lilac Vegetal
Pino Silvestre
Prada Amber
Ralph Lauren Polo
Royal Copenhagen
Shulton Old Spice Original
Taylor of Old Bond Street Sandalwood, TOBS Shaving Shop
Tom Ford Grey Vetiver
Truefitt & Hill Grafton
Yves St. Laurent Rive Gauche
I love Chypres and their adjacent barbershop genre scents!
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Bay Rum
Bay rum is a distillate that is thought to have been made originally in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, and subsequently on other West Indian islands, from rum and the leaves and berries of the West Indian bay tree, Pimenta racemosa. Other ingredients of the cologne and aftershave products may include citrus and spice oils, most commonly lime oil and clove oil, along with alcohol and water. According to traditional recipes, the aromatic oils were steeped in alcohol, and then "good rum" (usually Jamaican) and spices were added. Bay rum has a distinctive woody, sweet, and spicy fragrance. It can be used year round but is most popular in the summer.
A common misconception is that the scent is based upon rum. In reality, it is primarily the West Indian bay leaf which gives it the unique scent, along with spices such as clove, cardamom, and cinnamon, with the rum playing a minor role. Modern bay rum usually does not even contain actual rum due to cosmetic standard regulation, and blended spices and other scents such as vanilla or honey are used to replace the original rum.
According to legend, sailors in the 16th century, who became quite odorous while being stuck on a ship for months at a time without bathing, discovered that the West Indian bay leaf could be rubbed on their skin to apply a patchouli-like scent that could partially mask their body odor. At about the same time, plantation slaves on the islands had found that molasses, a by-product of their sugar crop, could be fermented secretly into a sweet alcoholic beverage. When the plantation owners/molasses brewers found out about this, they then developed methods for distilling the beverage, removing impurities and making it many times stronger, thus creating rum. Other histories suggest that rum was first created on the island of Barbados or even earlier in Brazil.
Traditionally, islanders had used oil from bay leaves medicinally as a cooling treatment for aching joints and muscles and hot skin. One story is that they started to mix this oil with distilled rum to make a lotion. However, alternatively, it is said that sailors came up with the idea of steeping their bay leaves in what had quickly become their favorite drink, rum, to extract the essential oils and make a cologne that was easier to use and more effective for scenting their smelly skin. Whichever is true, subsequently the islanders built upon this basic recipe, adding their own flourishes with cloves, citrus rinds, and cinnamon.
From the West Indies the basic bay rum cologne spread to the rest of the world, first in New York and colonial America, then Britain, and then in Europe and elsewhere via the Royal Navy. In 1838, Danish chemist Albert Heinrich Riise became interested in the concoction and discovered that through a double distillation process and mixing of St. John Bay leaf oils and spices with fine Virgin Island rums, a unique and wonderful fragrance could be created. His invention was awarded the Centennial International Exposition Medal in 1876 in Philadelphia, as well as other awards. Riise then sold his bay rum commercially under the name A.H. Riise Apothecary.
The reputation of St. John bay leaf oils continued to grow, and in 1903 the first large commercial bay tree plantation was started at Cinnamon Bay, followed by others at Carolina Estate, Maho Bay, and Lameshur Bay. By the 1920s, bay rum had become an important Virgin Island export. In 1921, the national U.S. prohibition of alcohol stopped the legal importation of bay rum. But by adding aspirin to it, manufacturers such as Rexall were able to skirt prohibition, and word spread that drinking their somewhat toxic bay rum, which was 58% grain alcohol, not only made one feel good but also relieved aches and pains. Bay rum's popularity decreased somewhat during World War II, when cargo space on ships was reserved mainly for war efforts, but interest was renewed by the postwar fascination with island exotica, exemplified by the huge popularity of Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical "South Pacific." Bay rum's cosmetic use has grown again in recent years with the renaissance of traditional wet shaving.
Proprietary bay rum lotions are produced by labs in several West Indian countries, as well as by American and European fragrance companies that purchase the essential oil from island sources. These days, alcohol is still used to extract the complex bay leaf oils, but these are then distilled further under pressure into an essential oil. The specific gravity of the oil is tested by hydrometer, but purity is also gauged on clarity and smell by experts. A few distilleries use stainless steel vats, but most still use copper. This imparts a sediment to the oil, which must be allowed to settle and clear before the oil can be used.
One well-known modern example of a bay rum is Penhaligon's Bayolea, created by William Penhaligon by mixing the the basic bay rum formula, scented with lemon, lemongrass, vetiver, and spices, with glycerine, quinine tincture, and honey water. Taylor of Old Bond Street and G.F. Trumper have offered bay rums for over a hundred years, and St. John's Bay Rum and Royal Lyme Limited Bay Rum also have long traditions, while in just the past few years artisan producers of aftershaves have created an explosion of niche bay rum choices. However, overall commercial sales of bay rum oil have declined somewhat because of the increasing trend toward fragrance-free soaps and other cosmetic products.
The original bay rum by A.H. Riise of St. Thomas continues to be produced in the U.S. Virgin Islands by the West Indies Bay Company. With its unique climate and exceptionally rich soil, the island of St. John has provided an ideal place for bay trees to thrive, and St. John bay leaf oils have maintained a worldwide reputation of being distinctive and superior. The West Indian bay tree, Pimenta racemosa, is a sturdy evergreen shrub or tree of the Myrtle family. When allowed to grow free, the tree can reach 80 feet in height, but when used for oil production it is kept at about 12 feet tall to allow easy harvesting.
Leaves are typically a shiny blue green and are strongly scented when crushed, and the flowers, bark, and berries are also fragrant. There are three varieties of bay leaves: common, anise scented, and citronella scented, which can be distinguished easily by smelling their crushed leaves. All can be used to produced fragrant oils, but nearly exclusive use is made of the common bay for commercial bay rum production. Myrtle was considered sacred by the ancient Greeks and was used in their festivals, and myrtle varieties have been used for centuries in perfumery. The local West Indian patois name for the bay tree is "bwa den," derived from the French "bois d'Inde" (tree from India), reflecting its original Asian origin before introduction to the Western Hemisphere.
A close relative of the bay tree is the pimento tree, whose seeds are known as "allspice." The bay laurel, source of the "bay leaves" used commonly in cooking, is from a completely unrelated species, Laurus nobilis. Bay laurel can be used to produce a similar fragrant lotion but is not commonly used in that way.
Bay rum is a distillate that is thought to have been made originally in St. Thomas, U.S. Virgin Islands, and subsequently on other West Indian islands, from rum and the leaves and berries of the West Indian bay tree, Pimenta racemosa. Other ingredients of the cologne and aftershave products may include citrus and spice oils, most commonly lime oil and clove oil, along with alcohol and water. According to traditional recipes, the aromatic oils were steeped in alcohol, and then "good rum" (usually Jamaican) and spices were added. Bay rum has a distinctive woody, sweet, and spicy fragrance. It can be used year round but is most popular in the summer.
A common misconception is that the scent is based upon rum. In reality, it is primarily the West Indian bay leaf which gives it the unique scent, along with spices such as clove, cardamom, and cinnamon, with the rum playing a minor role. Modern bay rum usually does not even contain actual rum due to cosmetic standard regulation, and blended spices and other scents such as vanilla or honey are used to replace the original rum.
According to legend, sailors in the 16th century, who became quite odorous while being stuck on a ship for months at a time without bathing, discovered that the West Indian bay leaf could be rubbed on their skin to apply a patchouli-like scent that could partially mask their body odor. At about the same time, plantation slaves on the islands had found that molasses, a by-product of their sugar crop, could be fermented secretly into a sweet alcoholic beverage. When the plantation owners/molasses brewers found out about this, they then developed methods for distilling the beverage, removing impurities and making it many times stronger, thus creating rum. Other histories suggest that rum was first created on the island of Barbados or even earlier in Brazil.
Traditionally, islanders had used oil from bay leaves medicinally as a cooling treatment for aching joints and muscles and hot skin. One story is that they started to mix this oil with distilled rum to make a lotion. However, alternatively, it is said that sailors came up with the idea of steeping their bay leaves in what had quickly become their favorite drink, rum, to extract the essential oils and make a cologne that was easier to use and more effective for scenting their smelly skin. Whichever is true, subsequently the islanders built upon this basic recipe, adding their own flourishes with cloves, citrus rinds, and cinnamon.
From the West Indies the basic bay rum cologne spread to the rest of the world, first in New York and colonial America, then Britain, and then in Europe and elsewhere via the Royal Navy. In 1838, Danish chemist Albert Heinrich Riise became interested in the concoction and discovered that through a double distillation process and mixing of St. John Bay leaf oils and spices with fine Virgin Island rums, a unique and wonderful fragrance could be created. His invention was awarded the Centennial International Exposition Medal in 1876 in Philadelphia, as well as other awards. Riise then sold his bay rum commercially under the name A.H. Riise Apothecary.
The reputation of St. John bay leaf oils continued to grow, and in 1903 the first large commercial bay tree plantation was started at Cinnamon Bay, followed by others at Carolina Estate, Maho Bay, and Lameshur Bay. By the 1920s, bay rum had become an important Virgin Island export. In 1921, the national U.S. prohibition of alcohol stopped the legal importation of bay rum. But by adding aspirin to it, manufacturers such as Rexall were able to skirt prohibition, and word spread that drinking their somewhat toxic bay rum, which was 58% grain alcohol, not only made one feel good but also relieved aches and pains. Bay rum's popularity decreased somewhat during World War II, when cargo space on ships was reserved mainly for war efforts, but interest was renewed by the postwar fascination with island exotica, exemplified by the huge popularity of Rodgers and Hammerstein's musical "South Pacific." Bay rum's cosmetic use has grown again in recent years with the renaissance of traditional wet shaving.
Proprietary bay rum lotions are produced by labs in several West Indian countries, as well as by American and European fragrance companies that purchase the essential oil from island sources. These days, alcohol is still used to extract the complex bay leaf oils, but these are then distilled further under pressure into an essential oil. The specific gravity of the oil is tested by hydrometer, but purity is also gauged on clarity and smell by experts. A few distilleries use stainless steel vats, but most still use copper. This imparts a sediment to the oil, which must be allowed to settle and clear before the oil can be used.
One well-known modern example of a bay rum is Penhaligon's Bayolea, created by William Penhaligon by mixing the the basic bay rum formula, scented with lemon, lemongrass, vetiver, and spices, with glycerine, quinine tincture, and honey water. Taylor of Old Bond Street and G.F. Trumper have offered bay rums for over a hundred years, and St. John's Bay Rum and Royal Lyme Limited Bay Rum also have long traditions, while in just the past few years artisan producers of aftershaves have created an explosion of niche bay rum choices. However, overall commercial sales of bay rum oil have declined somewhat because of the increasing trend toward fragrance-free soaps and other cosmetic products.
The original bay rum by A.H. Riise of St. Thomas continues to be produced in the U.S. Virgin Islands by the West Indies Bay Company. With its unique climate and exceptionally rich soil, the island of St. John has provided an ideal place for bay trees to thrive, and St. John bay leaf oils have maintained a worldwide reputation of being distinctive and superior. The West Indian bay tree, Pimenta racemosa, is a sturdy evergreen shrub or tree of the Myrtle family. When allowed to grow free, the tree can reach 80 feet in height, but when used for oil production it is kept at about 12 feet tall to allow easy harvesting.
Leaves are typically a shiny blue green and are strongly scented when crushed, and the flowers, bark, and berries are also fragrant. There are three varieties of bay leaves: common, anise scented, and citronella scented, which can be distinguished easily by smelling their crushed leaves. All can be used to produced fragrant oils, but nearly exclusive use is made of the common bay for commercial bay rum production. Myrtle was considered sacred by the ancient Greeks and was used in their festivals, and myrtle varieties have been used for centuries in perfumery. The local West Indian patois name for the bay tree is "bwa den," derived from the French "bois d'Inde" (tree from India), reflecting its original Asian origin before introduction to the Western Hemisphere.
A close relative of the bay tree is the pimento tree, whose seeds are known as "allspice." The bay laurel, source of the "bay leaves" used commonly in cooking, is from a completely unrelated species, Laurus nobilis. Bay laurel can be used to produce a similar fragrant lotion but is not commonly used in that way.
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TSC Yoda
Fragrance Classification and Fragrance Wheels
In perfumery there have been four main fragrance categories traditionally: Fresh, Floral, Oriental, and Woody. Within these four main groups fall generally accepted families; and beyond these are numerous combinations of notes that blur the lines of distinction.
The original classification of fragrances, which emerged around 1900, consisted of 7 entities:
•Single floral: dominated by a scent from one particular flower, in French called a soliflore.
•Floral bouquet: containing a combination of several flowers in a scent.
•Ambery or oriental: sweet, spicy, and exotic, featuring vanilla and animal scents together with flowers, woods, and spices such as cardamom and clove, sometimes enhanced by camphoraceous oils and incense resins.
•Woody: dominated by wood scents, typically of sandalwood, oak, and cedar. Patchouli is commonly found in these perfumes.
•Leather: featuring the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in the middle or base notes and suggesting leather items.
•Chypre: fragrances built on an accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. Named after a perfume by Francois Coty.
•Fougère: having a base of lavender, coumarin, and oakmoss and characterized by a sharp herbaceous and woody scent.
Since 1945, due to technological advances in compound design and synthesis and to style evolution, additional categories of scents have emerged:
•Bright floral: combining the traditional Single floral and floral bouquet categories.
•Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the chypre type.
•Oceanic/Aquatic/Ozone: the newest category, appearing in 1991, a clean, modern smell invoking the sea or the smell of rain, and leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes.
•Citrus or Fruity: a very old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes due to the low tenacity of natural citrus scents such as lemon, orange, bergamot, grapefruit, and mandarin. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of stabel primarily citrus fragrances.
•Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities, often containing notes like vanilla and tonka bean, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors.
However, there is not a complete consensus, and according to some experts, there should be eight major families: four feminine ones (Chypre, Floral, feminine Citrus, and feminine Oriental) and four masculine ones (Aromatic, Woody, masculine Citrus, and masculine Oriental).
Fragrance Wheel
The Fragrance wheel (or aroma wheel, fragrance circle, perfume wheel) is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in the fragrance industry. It is represented by a round diagram. The method was first used in 1949 by Austrian perfumer Paul Jellinek and was titled the Odor Effects Diagram:
Subsequently U. Harder at Haarman & Reimer and others developed several variations of the Fragrance Circle. And in 1983 Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, designed his own scheme of fragrance classification after being inspired by a fragrance seminar by Firmenich. Since its creation, Edwards' wheel has been modified several times, and it is the most widely used model.
The wheel scheme first was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming on a logical basis, as well as to show the relationships between individual classes, based upon odor similarities and differences, which previous classifications had overlooked.
The five standard families on most wheels now consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Fresh, with the first four families being the more "classic" ones, while the Fresh category consists of newer, bright and clean-smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. With the exception of the Fougères, each of the families is in turn usually divided into three sub-groups and arranged around a wheel:
1. Floral
1.Floral - notes of fresh-cut flowers
2.Soft Floral - aldehydes and powdery notes
3.Floral Oriental - main notes of orange blossom and sweet spices
2. Oriental
1.Soft Oriental - incense and amber
2.Oriental - vanilla and oriental resins such as frankincense
3.Woody Oriental - sandalwood and patchouli
3. Woody
1.Woods (added 2008) - aromatic woods and vetiver
2.Mossy Woods - oakmoss and amber
3.Dry Woods - dry woods and leather
4. Fresh
1.Citrus - bergamot and citrus oils
2.Green - galbanum and green notes
3.Water (Oceanic/Aquatic) - marine and aquatic notes, especially from calone
(4.Fruity - added 2008) - berries and other non-citrus fruits
5. Aromatic/Fougère
The idea is that the wheel represents the circular continuum of fragrances which humans can perceive, with each group blending into and overlapping with its two neighbors, with implied common olfactory characteristics. For instance Floral Oriental scents consist of a mingling of florals with sweet and spicy notes, while the adjacent Soft Oriental group frequently includes a slight flowery touch.
Until recently, the Fougère family was placed at the center of the wheel since it takes fragrance elements from the other four families, citrus from the Fresh, oakmoss and woods from Woody, coumarin and incense from Oriental, and lavender from Floral. This is shown in the 1983 wheel:
With a further modification in 2010, the Aromatics/Fougère group was moved to a space between Dry Woods and Citrus to synchronize the chart with newer studies of smell perception, and in some charts it actually is included under the Woody class. The 2010 Edwards chart:
In order to differentiate further, some experts have divided each of a family's subclasses in turn into Fresh, Crisp, Classical, or Rich compositions, while others have simply divided a subclass further into the individual scents themselves.
As a class, Chypres is more difficult to place since it usually would be located under parts of the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko, which is classically identified as a Chypre, would be placed under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge, a Chypre with a more floral character, would be put under Floral Oriental. Attempts have been made to incorporate the Chypres into a chart scheme, such as that of the Lebermuth Company, which sets it between the Fougères and the Camphoraceous (eucalyptus, rosemary, and pine), in addition to showing the presumed relationships of individual scents:
Another wheel example is that of the Chemia Corporation, which divides fragrances into different groups based upon their somewhat subjective predominant character, including "foodlike" ones, as shown here:
Still another chart which differentiates more is the Atelier wheel:
And the Drom Fragrance Circle further subjectively aligns scents with gender:
A more recent chart, outlining aromachemical relationships rather than smell perceptions, is the non-circular Givaudan Scent Ingredients Map:
And finally, some constructs attempt to express the recently well-described connection and cross-sensory interrelationship between the senses of smell and taste, such as the Aromaster chart:
Despite these attempts at classification, individual perfume products often remain difficult to characterize objectively. Fragrances may share notes, accords, or other characteristics, but each perfume is an individual entity with unique notes. Because of this uniqueness, a perfume can be seen to fall into more than one category of fragrance, especially since it will have a different smell on one person than on someone else and will vary in its overall personality with body chemistry changes and with the passage of time.
In perfumery there have been four main fragrance categories traditionally: Fresh, Floral, Oriental, and Woody. Within these four main groups fall generally accepted families; and beyond these are numerous combinations of notes that blur the lines of distinction.
The original classification of fragrances, which emerged around 1900, consisted of 7 entities:
•Single floral: dominated by a scent from one particular flower, in French called a soliflore.
•Floral bouquet: containing a combination of several flowers in a scent.
•Ambery or oriental: sweet, spicy, and exotic, featuring vanilla and animal scents together with flowers, woods, and spices such as cardamom and clove, sometimes enhanced by camphoraceous oils and incense resins.
•Woody: dominated by wood scents, typically of sandalwood, oak, and cedar. Patchouli is commonly found in these perfumes.
•Leather: featuring the scents of honey, tobacco, wood and wood tars in the middle or base notes and suggesting leather items.
•Chypre: fragrances built on an accord consisting of bergamot, oakmoss, patchouli, and labdanum. Named after a perfume by Francois Coty.
•Fougère: having a base of lavender, coumarin, and oakmoss and characterized by a sharp herbaceous and woody scent.
Since 1945, due to technological advances in compound design and synthesis and to style evolution, additional categories of scents have emerged:
•Bright floral: combining the traditional Single floral and floral bouquet categories.
•Green: a lighter and more modern interpretation of the chypre type.
•Oceanic/Aquatic/Ozone: the newest category, appearing in 1991, a clean, modern smell invoking the sea or the smell of rain, and leading to many of the modern androgynous perfumes.
•Citrus or Fruity: a very old fragrance family that until recently consisted mainly of "freshening" eau de colognes due to the low tenacity of natural citrus scents such as lemon, orange, bergamot, grapefruit, and mandarin. Development of newer fragrance compounds has allowed for the creation of stabel primarily citrus fragrances.
•Gourmand: scents with "edible" or "dessert"-like qualities, often containing notes like vanilla and tonka bean, as well as synthetic components designed to resemble food flavors.
However, there is not a complete consensus, and according to some experts, there should be eight major families: four feminine ones (Chypre, Floral, feminine Citrus, and feminine Oriental) and four masculine ones (Aromatic, Woody, masculine Citrus, and masculine Oriental).
Fragrance Wheel
The Fragrance wheel (or aroma wheel, fragrance circle, perfume wheel) is a relatively new classification method that is widely used in the fragrance industry. It is represented by a round diagram. The method was first used in 1949 by Austrian perfumer Paul Jellinek and was titled the Odor Effects Diagram:
Subsequently U. Harder at Haarman & Reimer and others developed several variations of the Fragrance Circle. And in 1983 Michael Edwards, a consultant in the perfume industry, designed his own scheme of fragrance classification after being inspired by a fragrance seminar by Firmenich. Since its creation, Edwards' wheel has been modified several times, and it is the most widely used model.
The wheel scheme first was created in order to simplify fragrance classification and naming on a logical basis, as well as to show the relationships between individual classes, based upon odor similarities and differences, which previous classifications had overlooked.
The five standard families on most wheels now consist of Floral, Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Fresh, with the first four families being the more "classic" ones, while the Fresh category consists of newer, bright and clean-smelling citrus and oceanic fragrances that have arrived due to improvements in fragrance technology. With the exception of the Fougères, each of the families is in turn usually divided into three sub-groups and arranged around a wheel:
1. Floral
1.Floral - notes of fresh-cut flowers
2.Soft Floral - aldehydes and powdery notes
3.Floral Oriental - main notes of orange blossom and sweet spices
2. Oriental
1.Soft Oriental - incense and amber
2.Oriental - vanilla and oriental resins such as frankincense
3.Woody Oriental - sandalwood and patchouli
3. Woody
1.Woods (added 2008) - aromatic woods and vetiver
2.Mossy Woods - oakmoss and amber
3.Dry Woods - dry woods and leather
4. Fresh
1.Citrus - bergamot and citrus oils
2.Green - galbanum and green notes
3.Water (Oceanic/Aquatic) - marine and aquatic notes, especially from calone
(4.Fruity - added 2008) - berries and other non-citrus fruits
5. Aromatic/Fougère
The idea is that the wheel represents the circular continuum of fragrances which humans can perceive, with each group blending into and overlapping with its two neighbors, with implied common olfactory characteristics. For instance Floral Oriental scents consist of a mingling of florals with sweet and spicy notes, while the adjacent Soft Oriental group frequently includes a slight flowery touch.
Until recently, the Fougère family was placed at the center of the wheel since it takes fragrance elements from the other four families, citrus from the Fresh, oakmoss and woods from Woody, coumarin and incense from Oriental, and lavender from Floral. This is shown in the 1983 wheel:
With a further modification in 2010, the Aromatics/Fougère group was moved to a space between Dry Woods and Citrus to synchronize the chart with newer studies of smell perception, and in some charts it actually is included under the Woody class. The 2010 Edwards chart:
In order to differentiate further, some experts have divided each of a family's subclasses in turn into Fresh, Crisp, Classical, or Rich compositions, while others have simply divided a subclass further into the individual scents themselves.
As a class, Chypres is more difficult to place since it usually would be located under parts of the Oriental and Woody families. For instance, Guerlain Mitsouko, which is classically identified as a Chypre, would be placed under Mossy Woods, but Hermès Rouge, a Chypre with a more floral character, would be put under Floral Oriental. Attempts have been made to incorporate the Chypres into a chart scheme, such as that of the Lebermuth Company, which sets it between the Fougères and the Camphoraceous (eucalyptus, rosemary, and pine), in addition to showing the presumed relationships of individual scents:
Another wheel example is that of the Chemia Corporation, which divides fragrances into different groups based upon their somewhat subjective predominant character, including "foodlike" ones, as shown here:
Still another chart which differentiates more is the Atelier wheel:
And the Drom Fragrance Circle further subjectively aligns scents with gender:
A more recent chart, outlining aromachemical relationships rather than smell perceptions, is the non-circular Givaudan Scent Ingredients Map:
And finally, some constructs attempt to express the recently well-described connection and cross-sensory interrelationship between the senses of smell and taste, such as the Aromaster chart:
Despite these attempts at classification, individual perfume products often remain difficult to characterize objectively. Fragrances may share notes, accords, or other characteristics, but each perfume is an individual entity with unique notes. Because of this uniqueness, a perfume can be seen to fall into more than one category of fragrance, especially since it will have a different smell on one person than on someone else and will vary in its overall personality with body chemistry changes and with the passage of time.
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TSC Yoda
Oriental Fragrances
Oriental fragrances comprise one of the major perfume categories on the typical fragrance wheel. They are distinguished by the use of warm, rich, exotic, and sweet notes. Overall tones can be herbal, spicy, dry, powdery, and/or resinous. The perfumes generally are opulent, voluptuous, and seductive. The meaning of the term 'Oriental' has changed over the last several decades, especially with the growing influence of Arabian perfumery.
This perfume genre is called Oriental because it represents the Western fantasy of the mysterious and sensual East that arose in the 19th century. At that time French artists such as Eugene Delacroix and Jean Ingres captured this dream in their paintings of lounging odalisques, tiger hunts, and harem scenes, and French perfumers translated these stereotypical visions through rich notes of vanilla, amber, patchouli, sandalwood, and musk. Although embodying a fantasy image, the Orientals were rooted in perfume's history, using many of the same ingredients that were initially used in India and Arabia at the beginning of fragrance creation. The first contemporary Oriental fragrances were Guerlain Jicky (1889), and Coty L'Origan (1905), Ambre Antique (1910), and Emeraude (1921).
Classical Oriental fragrances have used natural ingredients like heliotrope, sandalwood, coumarin, orris, myrrh, anise, vanilla, musk, and gum resins, but the combinations have been tweaked to aim them to men or women or as 'shared' scents, and they have evolved over time with the changing needs of perfume users. Typically they have strong sillage and are quite long lasting, due to heavy use of the base notes. They are generally extracted and mixed in an oil base that makes the perfume stick well to the skin and allows it to evaporate slowly over a long time. Their prevailing character often is 'adult' and most suited to evening wear.
The most popular Oriental notes in modern products are:
bergamot (top)
pink peppercorn (top-middle)
rose, nutmeg, jasmine, tuberose, ginger (middle)
tonka bean, amber, cedarwood, vanilla, sandalwood, patchouli, orris (base)
Well-known classical Oriental fragrances are Guerlain Shalimar and Habit Rouge; Calvin Klein Obsession; Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur; Cartier Must; and Annick Goutal Ambre Fetich and l'Artisan l'Eau d'Ambre.
There are defined and recognized Oriental subfamilies, the major ones being Floral Oriental (Floriental), Soft Oriental, and Woody Oriental, which generally represent transition areas blending into adjacent ones on the standard fragrance wheels, along with Fougere Oriental, which combines aspects of all the subfamilies. More recently described subgroups include Spicy Oriental and the minor Aromatic Oriental (usually considered a part of the Floral Oriental type), Vanilla Oriental, and Fresh Oriental (also often combined into the Floral Oriental group). Those Oriental fragrances with dominant amber are usually considered in a separate group due to their accentuated warmth and sensuality.
Obviously some fragrances will lend themselves to more than one subfamily, and there can be disagreement among perceptions. Thus some of the perfumes listed in the groups below appear more than once.
Floral Oriental
Bordering on the Floral category on the wheel, these typically have a sweet, warm, dark, powdery base, often harmonizing with flowers such as gardenia, tuberose, rose, jasmine, peony, magnolia, lily of the valley, or carnation. They have the softness of florals and the warmth of true Orientals. The majority of them are primarily considered feminine or unisex. Aromatic florals, one of the oldest groups historically, are considered part of this category.
Some of the recognized more masculine Floral Orientals include:
Abercrombie & Fitch Oud Amour
Acqua di Parma Colonia Vaniglia
Amouage Molook
Bvlgari Man in Black, Garanat, Opalon
Cartier Declaration Essence
Elysees Conviction Black
Fragrance Kitchen Man from Ipanema
Gritti 19-68
Hugo Boss Bottled Oud Aromatic
Korres l'Eau de Parfum 20
Oriflame Excite Force
Phebo Patchouli
Rasasi Junoon Satin
Roberto Cavalli
Sapientiae Niche Ofanins
Xerjoff Shooting Stars Modoc
Zara Gold Edition
Soft Oriental (Incense)
The base notes of these perfumes are not as sweet or heavy as those of classical Orientals, and they are less balsamic and animalic. Their blends of flowers, spices, and amber create a softer but still sensual style. Incense frequently is added for a darker and warmer composition.
Typical masculine Soft Orientals are:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Mirra
Cacharel Loulou
Diptyque l'Eau
Estee Lauder Youth Dew
Jean Patou Sublime
Kenzo Jungle l'Elephant
Chanel Coco
Serge Lutens Ambre Sultan
Robert Graham Valour
Woody Oriental
These have prominent wood notes that temper the sweetness of the vanilla, tonka bean, amber, and balsamics. Their accents provide what has been described as a 'luminous' effect, and they are sometimes considered 'artistic.' They often contain warm sandalwood and rosewood and dry notes of cedarwood, patchouli, agarwood, or vetiver. These are the most popular Oriental fragrances for men. Aromatic woods are generally included in this category.
Masculine Woody Orientals include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Mirra, Colonia Oud
Alexandria Alexander the Great, Aromatic Conflict, Himalaya Mountains, Extreme
Alfred Dunhill Desire, Pursuit
Amouage Epic, Beloved, Figment, Interlude Black Iris, Interlude, Overture
Annick Goutal Sables
Ariana & Evans Khalifa
Axe Provocation
Azzaro Duo
Burberry Brit, London
Bvlgari Ambero, Notte, Man, Man Black Orient, Silver LE, Falkar, Gyan, Omnio
C.O. Bigelow Barber Cologne Elixir Black
Cacharel Nemo
Calvin Klein Contradiction, Dark Obsession, Encounter, Euphoria (various), Obsessed, Obsession
Carolina Herrera 212 (various), Insignia
Cartier Declaration, l'Envol de Cartier, Must Cartier, Santos
Cerruti 1881 Black
Chanel Allure (various), Bois des Iles, Egoiste
Chopard pour Homme
Christian Dior Faahrenheit 32, CC Patchouli Imperial, Dune
Crabtree & Evelyn Sandalwood
Creed Bois du Portugal, Himalaya, Santal Imperial
Davidoff Horizon Extreme, Silver Shadow, Brilliant Game, Game Intense, Zino
Dolce & Gabbana By, One Royal Night, Velvet Incenso
Donna Karan Chaos
Dzintars My Version (various), Ridzinieks, Strong Man
Emanuel Ungaro for Him
Ermenegildo Zegna Amber Gold, Indonesian Oud, Roman Wood, Zegna New York
Fendi Theorema Uomo
Floris Patchouli
Fragonard Eau de Hongrie, Zizanie
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel
Giorgio Armani Code (various)
Givenchy Gentlemen Only Intense, Pi (various), Very Irresistible
Gucci Envy, Guilty Absolute
Guerlain Habit (various), l'Homme Ideal (various), Samsara
Halston Man Amber
Hugo Boss Bottled Oud, Scent Private Accord
Hermes Eau de Merveilles, Terre d'Hermes
Issey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey Or Encens, Nuit d'Issey Polaris
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jequiti Malte, Portiolli, Stame, Thiaguinho, Uzon
John Varvatos for Men, Dark Rebel, Oud
Joop! Homme Black King, Homme
Jovan Ginseng NRG
Karl Lagerfeld Classic
Korres Black Pepper Cashmere Lemonwood, Saffron Tobacco
L'Occitane en Provence Eau des Baux
Masaki Maatsushima Aqua Mat Homme, Art Homme
Michael Kors for Men, Extreme Night
Molinard Habanita
Montale Red Vetiver
Mugler A*Men (various), Alien Man, Taste of Fragrance
Nikos for Men
Oleg Cassini for Men
Oriflame Dark Wood, Eternal Man
Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Black XS (various), Ultraviolet
Pecksniff's Cardinal, Tompion
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet
Pierre Cardin Centaure Cuir Casaque, Collection Cedre-Ambre, Revelation Energy
Prada Luna Rossa Black, l'Homme Absolu, l'Homme Intense
Ralph Lauren Polo (various)
Remy Latour Cigar Black Oud, Cigar Mystic Scent, Manes
Roger & Gallet l'Homme Vetyver
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Noble, 1775 Valor, 1775 Rival
Santa Maria Novella Opoponax
Tom Ford Noir Extreme
Versace pour Homme, Oud Noir, Versus Uomo
Viktor & Rolf Antidote
Yardley 442 Active
Yves Rocher Ambre Noir, Hoggar
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Intense, Collection M7, La Nuitde l'Homme, Opium Eau d'Orient
Zara (various)
Fougere Oriental
This represents the blending of nearly all the major Oriental components (warm, woody, spicy, and sweet accords) along with refreshing aromatic notes of lavender, rosemary, coumarin, and oakmoss. This group is especially popular with men.
Men's Fougere Oriental perfumes:
Alexandria Ete Sauvage, Greek Horse, Mr. Sillage, Royalty
Alfred Dunhill Desire Black, London
Amouage Jubilation XXV Man
Axe Africa, Anarchy for Him, Dark Temptation, Musk, Phoenix, Signature Rogue
Azzaro Amber Fever, Elixir Bois Precieux, Naughty Leather, Solarissimo Favignana
Burberry Element
Bvlgari Kobraa
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Eternity Now, Euphoria Gold
Carolina Herrra 212 (various)
Caron Impact pour un Homme
Cartier Pasha
Cerruti Si
Chanel pour Monsieur
Chopard Heaven
Christian Dior Sauvage
Claus Porto Musgo Real Agua de Colonia No. 1 Orange Amber
Crabtree & Evelyn Moroccan Myrrh
Dana Canoe
Dzintars Lucky No. 10
Emanuel Ungaro Apparition Homme Intense, Ungaro
Fila for Men
Fiorucci Extreme Sport
Giorgio Armani Attitude, Eau de Nuit, Stronger with You Intensely
Givenchy Play Intense, Xeryus Rouge
Gritti Decimo
Hermes Equipage
Hugo Boss In Motion
Jean Patou
Jean Paul Gautier Le Male (various), Ultra Male
Jequiti l'Attitude Musique, Prive Homme Fortune, So Voce Fabio Jr. Momentos
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Johan Varvatos JVxNJ Crimson
Joop! Homme (various)
Kenneth Cole Mankind Hero
Lacoste Elegance
L'Acqua di Fiori 310, U.Man
Lancome Hypnose
Montale Sliver Aoud
Mugler A*Men (various)
Nikos Sculpture
Oleg Cassini
Oriflame Full Moon, Possess Man
Penhaligon's Agarbathi
Pierre Cardin Bleu Marine
Pino Silvestre Deep Charisma
Rasasi Al Wisam Day
Rochas l'Homme, Monsieur Rochas
Salvatore Ferragamo Acqua Essenziale Blu
Swank Jade East
Thera Cosmeticos (various)
Versace Dreamer
Yves St. Laurent Jazz Prestige, La Nuit, La Nuit Eau Electrique
Zara (various)
Spicy Oriental
The term Oriental applies especially well to this group, since they often have multiple strong, balanced ingredients rather than a specific or signature accord. Hot, sensual, and with a typical zesty and adventuresome spirit, they are a favorite with both genders, especially in the cold winter season. Popular notes include cinnamon, clove, pink pepper, mace, thyme, and nutmeg, and common floral additions are mandarin, bergamot, and orchid, which give the perfume an added Eastern flavor. Amber sometimes is added for more warmth. Men seem to prefer Spicy Orientals that also mix vanilla and resins. This group is has remained popular and less changed than some of the others.
Popular men's products:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Quercia
Alexandria La Dolce Vita, Ovation
Alfred Dunhill Moroccan Amber
Amouage Lyric, Fate
Aramis Classic Reserve, Havana, JHL
Azzaro Decibel
Boucheron Homme Fraicheur 2008, Jaipur
Burberry Brit New Year, London
Bvlgari Man in Black Essence, Le Gemme Yasep
C.O. Bigelow Barber Cologne Elixir, Bay Rum
Calvin Klein Heat, One Shock, Eternity, Obsessed
Carolina Herrera Bad Boy, CH Men, CH Men Grand Tour
Cartier Must, Santos Concentree
Cerruti 1881 Signature
Chanel pour Monsieur Concentree
Christian Dior Fahrenheit, Sauvage
Claus Porto Real Black Edition
Dana English Leather Spiced
Davidoff Hot Water, Hot Water Night
Dolce & Gabbana ll La Force, The One Collector, One Mysterious Night
Emanuel Ungaro pour l'Homme II, Power, U Fever
Ermenegildo Zegna (various)
Floris Palm Springs for Spencer Hart
Fragonard Desert
Giorgio Armani Code (various), Attitude Extreme, Gio 2015
Givenchy Gentlemen Only Absolute
Gucci Made to Measure
Hugo Boss Soul, Scent Absolute, Dark Blue, Red
Jequiti Champs Velocite
Jovan Satisfaction
Karl Lagerfeld Homme, KL, Photo
Korres Saffron Amber Agarwood Cardamom
L'Occitane en Provence Au Bresil - Cumaru
Lacoste Timeless
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac Fire Power
Narciso Rodriguez Intense
Nikos Sculpture Homme God's Night
Oriflame Be the Wild Legend, ID Player, Intense Embrace Him, Manful, Signature Heritage, Voyager
Paco Rabanne Pure XS Night
Panama 1924 Sport, 2.0
Paul Sebastian Silver, Kinetic
Pecksniff's Charismatic
Penhaligon's Endymion, LP No. 9, Uncompromising Sohan
Pierre Cardin Revelation
Rasasi Daarej, Tasmeem
Roja Enigma, Madison
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Rival, Noble
Shulton Old Spice Original
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Xerjoff Coffee Break Golden Dallah, Shooting Stars Kobe
Yardley Bond Street, Cougar
Yves St. Laurent Body Kouros, Opium (various)
Zara (various)
(Vanilla Oriental)
With warm gourmand characters, this group blends already sweet perfumes built on Oriental notes (the usual woods, flowers, spices, and resins) with other sweet components, such as caramel, vanilla, chocolate, almond, honey, and burnt sugar. Products of this type is especially popular among women, but several of them are aimed at men:
Axe Provoke
Carolina Herrera 212 VIP
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength
Frederic Malle Monsieur
Giorgio Armani Night
Guerlain l'Initial
Inessance Terre d'Evasion
Jacques Battini De l'Ambre Shady
Jean Paul Gaultier Kokorico by Night
John Varvatos Rock Volume 1
Joop! Wow!
Mugler A*Men Pure Havane, Angel Glamorama
Oriflame S8 Night
Remy Latour Cigar Vanilla Tonka
Ralph Lauren Ralph Hot
Ted Lapidus Intenso
Thera Cosmeticos Amatus
Yves St. Laurent Black Opium Storm Illusion
(Fresh Oriental)
Often considered a part of the Floral Oriental family, this newer group has a lighter interpretation, with citrus oils included to brighten and lift the aroma, making them more applicable to daytime use while still having an underlying exotic beauty. Examples include:
10 Corso Como Uomo
Acqua di Parma Colonia Mirra
Baldessarini Black
Bvlgari Le Gemme Garanat, Man Black
Davidoff Cool Water Intense
Kenzo Aqua Kenzo Neo
Lacoste Timeless
Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Invictus Legend, Pure XS
Prada Luna Rossa Sport
Rasasi La Yuqawam Ambergris Showers, Relation, Truly, Xtraordinaire Musky
Roja Madison
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Valor
Zara Amber, Blue Spirit, CC Sydney, Denim Couture Red, Weekend Hoodie, Tobacco Intense Dark
(Aromatic Oriental)
This is generally deemed a part of the Floral Oriental collection but is thought to be significantly separate by a few. The fragrances typically possess a very intensive grassy-spicy tone provided by sage, rosemary, cumin, lavender, and other plants, which often is combined with uplifting citrus notes. They seem to be especially popular with men. Included in this group are:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct
Bvlgari Le Gemme Opalon, Man Black Orient
Chanel Allure Sport
Chopard 1000 Miglia Chrono
Giorgio Armani Code A-List
Hugo Boss The Scent
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male, Le Male Aviator
Karl Lagerfled Bois de Cedre
Lacoste Land
Mugler Alien Man
Panama 1924 Espresso Napoletano
Rasasi Power Plus
Roja Risque
Taylor of Old Bond Street Platinum
Xerjoff Coffee Break Golden Moka
Zara C4shmer4n, For Him
Oriental Perfume Name/Concept Controversy
Many experts consider the term 'Oriental' to be misleading and vague or worse. Although there are old and sophisticated fragrance traditions in North Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East, the typical modern perfume of this type has little in common with their classical forms. Amouage Gold, a well-known modern fragrance from the company founded by the Omani royal family, does exploit and typify the cliché, with a signature powdery-mossy accord built around Omani rose and frankincense. But the Oriental family of French perfumery initially grew as part of the stereotypical orientalist Western arts movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and like the widely varying philosophies of the artists of that time, the word came to mean many things, often seemingly conflicting. This confusing state has been worsened by the necessity of many of the fragrances being constantly reformulated to keep them in compliance with various governmental regulations.
'Oriental' possibly was used at first to describe perfumes actually made with ingredients from or associated with the Orient, especially the Middle East, and subsequently ingredients that approximated or suggested those 'warm' scents. The first product to use the term in print was Guerlain Shalimar, launched in 1925 in Paris at the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts and described as Oriental "because its suave gourmand notes recall the sweet balsams of the lands of the One Thousand and One Nights." It was said to have been inspired by a maharaja visiting Paris who told Jacques and Raymond Guerlain the story of the gardens of Shalimar, which sheltered the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and his Persian wife Mumtaz Mahal, for whom he built the Taj Mahal.
Outside the perfume world, 'Oriental' is a word not only reflecting Western fantasies, but also suggesting 19th century and early 20th century European colonialism. In his book Orientalism, Edward Said described it as "a sign of European-Atlantic power of the Orient" and an artificially constructed understanding of what Westerners believed the Orient to be: an exotic, mysterious, and culturally opposite place from the West. The word was used to simultaneously fetishize and degrade Eastern cultures thought to be less sophisticated or 'advanced' than Western ones, and it painted a culturally homogenous image of a vast group of people whose only true similarity was that they were non-European. More recently, it has become clear that when the term is applied to people, it is seen as politically incorrect and insensitive. In 2016 President Obama signed a bill eliminating all uses of the term Oriental from federal law. Grace Meng, a member of Congress from New York who sponsored the bill, called the term "outdated" and "offensive." She said, "Many Americans may not be aware that the word 'Oriental' is derogatory. But it is an insulting term that needed to be removed from the books."
So is the use of the term Oriental a problem in perfumery? Dr. Amy Hanser, Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of British Columbia, says in somewhat typical sociological language, "It points to the ways in which we are sensitive to (negatively) racializing language when applied to people, but we might fail to recognize racializing discourse that is not directly applied to human bodies. But the idea of a perfume being an 'Oriental' fragrance might indeed be drawing upon stereotypes about a region (and its people) that make the term problematic when applied to people."
To some it seems bizarre that it still is being used to describe fragrances. Alexa Nishimoto, a freelance fashion designer with the Japanese American Museum in Los Angeles, says, "It feels like [brands] attempt to use one universal word to convey all Asian cultures, which is reductive to those who know that the nuances of each culture can be vastly different and don't fall under just one umbrella term." Dana El Masri, an independent perfumer, agrees: "[The term Oriental] is outdated and unnecessary. It also doesn't say much about the fragrance family and has become more of a reference to a 'spice' structure that was created in the 1920s than anything else. It is too broad a reference and perpetuates a typically Western/Occidental point of view."
But to traditional perfumers and perfume aficionados, it remains an 'official' classification. Says Marian Bendeth, a fragrance expert and perfumery owner, "It's where it originates, and it's a beautiful thing and certainly helps me because I deal with classifications all the time." She sees the term not as cultural but as geographical, denoting the origin of certain commonly-used fragrance notes.
The non-profit Institute for Art and Olfaction (IAO) refrains from using Oriental as a perfume classification, referring to it only if absolutely necessary as "the category most commonly known as Oriental, which needs renaming." One member of its board of directors, Julianne Lee, says, "I understand that the term is not one that is easy to sidestep for those in the fragrance community as so-called 'Oriental' perfumes are crucial to perfume history. However, I do find it lazy and harmful terminology." El Masri has suggested breaking down the single fragrance family into subfamilies based on geographical regions: "There are huge differences between a fragrance created in Malaysia by Malay people and a Japanese one, obviously, so why not classify it as such?" But many modern perfumes that have evolved from those created a century ago do not fit into geographical definitions at all, which has prompted some experts to propose coining terms such as 'ambery' that describe the actual olfactory notes, although there is wide disagreement about how this could be accomplished. Lee has noted that in terms of primary olfactory notes, so-called Oriental fragrances can generally be divided into two categories: those that incorporate an 'ambreine' accord (bergamot, vanilla, rose) and those that use a 'mellis' ('honey-sweet' or 'pleasant') accord (benzoin, eugenol, lily-of-the-valley, spices), but she also recognizes that many contemporary Oriental scents have branched out and mutated so much that they may not even warrant use of the Oriental label or accord labels at all. "Oftentimes, they are mere attempts at populating the 'Oriental' category, clearly visible from the marketing narrative and strategy."
So the controversy continues.
Oriental fragrances comprise one of the major perfume categories on the typical fragrance wheel. They are distinguished by the use of warm, rich, exotic, and sweet notes. Overall tones can be herbal, spicy, dry, powdery, and/or resinous. The perfumes generally are opulent, voluptuous, and seductive. The meaning of the term 'Oriental' has changed over the last several decades, especially with the growing influence of Arabian perfumery.
This perfume genre is called Oriental because it represents the Western fantasy of the mysterious and sensual East that arose in the 19th century. At that time French artists such as Eugene Delacroix and Jean Ingres captured this dream in their paintings of lounging odalisques, tiger hunts, and harem scenes, and French perfumers translated these stereotypical visions through rich notes of vanilla, amber, patchouli, sandalwood, and musk. Although embodying a fantasy image, the Orientals were rooted in perfume's history, using many of the same ingredients that were initially used in India and Arabia at the beginning of fragrance creation. The first contemporary Oriental fragrances were Guerlain Jicky (1889), and Coty L'Origan (1905), Ambre Antique (1910), and Emeraude (1921).
Classical Oriental fragrances have used natural ingredients like heliotrope, sandalwood, coumarin, orris, myrrh, anise, vanilla, musk, and gum resins, but the combinations have been tweaked to aim them to men or women or as 'shared' scents, and they have evolved over time with the changing needs of perfume users. Typically they have strong sillage and are quite long lasting, due to heavy use of the base notes. They are generally extracted and mixed in an oil base that makes the perfume stick well to the skin and allows it to evaporate slowly over a long time. Their prevailing character often is 'adult' and most suited to evening wear.
The most popular Oriental notes in modern products are:
bergamot (top)
pink peppercorn (top-middle)
rose, nutmeg, jasmine, tuberose, ginger (middle)
tonka bean, amber, cedarwood, vanilla, sandalwood, patchouli, orris (base)
Well-known classical Oriental fragrances are Guerlain Shalimar and Habit Rouge; Calvin Klein Obsession; Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur; Cartier Must; and Annick Goutal Ambre Fetich and l'Artisan l'Eau d'Ambre.
There are defined and recognized Oriental subfamilies, the major ones being Floral Oriental (Floriental), Soft Oriental, and Woody Oriental, which generally represent transition areas blending into adjacent ones on the standard fragrance wheels, along with Fougere Oriental, which combines aspects of all the subfamilies. More recently described subgroups include Spicy Oriental and the minor Aromatic Oriental (usually considered a part of the Floral Oriental type), Vanilla Oriental, and Fresh Oriental (also often combined into the Floral Oriental group). Those Oriental fragrances with dominant amber are usually considered in a separate group due to their accentuated warmth and sensuality.
Obviously some fragrances will lend themselves to more than one subfamily, and there can be disagreement among perceptions. Thus some of the perfumes listed in the groups below appear more than once.
Floral Oriental
Bordering on the Floral category on the wheel, these typically have a sweet, warm, dark, powdery base, often harmonizing with flowers such as gardenia, tuberose, rose, jasmine, peony, magnolia, lily of the valley, or carnation. They have the softness of florals and the warmth of true Orientals. The majority of them are primarily considered feminine or unisex. Aromatic florals, one of the oldest groups historically, are considered part of this category.
Some of the recognized more masculine Floral Orientals include:
Abercrombie & Fitch Oud Amour
Acqua di Parma Colonia Vaniglia
Amouage Molook
Bvlgari Man in Black, Garanat, Opalon
Cartier Declaration Essence
Elysees Conviction Black
Fragrance Kitchen Man from Ipanema
Gritti 19-68
Hugo Boss Bottled Oud Aromatic
Korres l'Eau de Parfum 20
Oriflame Excite Force
Phebo Patchouli
Rasasi Junoon Satin
Roberto Cavalli
Sapientiae Niche Ofanins
Xerjoff Shooting Stars Modoc
Zara Gold Edition
Soft Oriental (Incense)
The base notes of these perfumes are not as sweet or heavy as those of classical Orientals, and they are less balsamic and animalic. Their blends of flowers, spices, and amber create a softer but still sensual style. Incense frequently is added for a darker and warmer composition.
Typical masculine Soft Orientals are:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Mirra
Cacharel Loulou
Diptyque l'Eau
Estee Lauder Youth Dew
Jean Patou Sublime
Kenzo Jungle l'Elephant
Chanel Coco
Serge Lutens Ambre Sultan
Robert Graham Valour
Woody Oriental
These have prominent wood notes that temper the sweetness of the vanilla, tonka bean, amber, and balsamics. Their accents provide what has been described as a 'luminous' effect, and they are sometimes considered 'artistic.' They often contain warm sandalwood and rosewood and dry notes of cedarwood, patchouli, agarwood, or vetiver. These are the most popular Oriental fragrances for men. Aromatic woods are generally included in this category.
Masculine Woody Orientals include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Mirra, Colonia Oud
Alexandria Alexander the Great, Aromatic Conflict, Himalaya Mountains, Extreme
Alfred Dunhill Desire, Pursuit
Amouage Epic, Beloved, Figment, Interlude Black Iris, Interlude, Overture
Annick Goutal Sables
Ariana & Evans Khalifa
Axe Provocation
Azzaro Duo
Burberry Brit, London
Bvlgari Ambero, Notte, Man, Man Black Orient, Silver LE, Falkar, Gyan, Omnio
C.O. Bigelow Barber Cologne Elixir Black
Cacharel Nemo
Calvin Klein Contradiction, Dark Obsession, Encounter, Euphoria (various), Obsessed, Obsession
Carolina Herrera 212 (various), Insignia
Cartier Declaration, l'Envol de Cartier, Must Cartier, Santos
Cerruti 1881 Black
Chanel Allure (various), Bois des Iles, Egoiste
Chopard pour Homme
Christian Dior Faahrenheit 32, CC Patchouli Imperial, Dune
Crabtree & Evelyn Sandalwood
Creed Bois du Portugal, Himalaya, Santal Imperial
Davidoff Horizon Extreme, Silver Shadow, Brilliant Game, Game Intense, Zino
Dolce & Gabbana By, One Royal Night, Velvet Incenso
Donna Karan Chaos
Dzintars My Version (various), Ridzinieks, Strong Man
Emanuel Ungaro for Him
Ermenegildo Zegna Amber Gold, Indonesian Oud, Roman Wood, Zegna New York
Fendi Theorema Uomo
Floris Patchouli
Fragonard Eau de Hongrie, Zizanie
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel
Giorgio Armani Code (various)
Givenchy Gentlemen Only Intense, Pi (various), Very Irresistible
Gucci Envy, Guilty Absolute
Guerlain Habit (various), l'Homme Ideal (various), Samsara
Halston Man Amber
Hugo Boss Bottled Oud, Scent Private Accord
Hermes Eau de Merveilles, Terre d'Hermes
Issey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey Or Encens, Nuit d'Issey Polaris
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jequiti Malte, Portiolli, Stame, Thiaguinho, Uzon
John Varvatos for Men, Dark Rebel, Oud
Joop! Homme Black King, Homme
Jovan Ginseng NRG
Karl Lagerfeld Classic
Korres Black Pepper Cashmere Lemonwood, Saffron Tobacco
L'Occitane en Provence Eau des Baux
Masaki Maatsushima Aqua Mat Homme, Art Homme
Michael Kors for Men, Extreme Night
Molinard Habanita
Montale Red Vetiver
Mugler A*Men (various), Alien Man, Taste of Fragrance
Nikos for Men
Oleg Cassini for Men
Oriflame Dark Wood, Eternal Man
Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Black XS (various), Ultraviolet
Pecksniff's Cardinal, Tompion
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet
Pierre Cardin Centaure Cuir Casaque, Collection Cedre-Ambre, Revelation Energy
Prada Luna Rossa Black, l'Homme Absolu, l'Homme Intense
Ralph Lauren Polo (various)
Remy Latour Cigar Black Oud, Cigar Mystic Scent, Manes
Roger & Gallet l'Homme Vetyver
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Noble, 1775 Valor, 1775 Rival
Santa Maria Novella Opoponax
Tom Ford Noir Extreme
Versace pour Homme, Oud Noir, Versus Uomo
Viktor & Rolf Antidote
Yardley 442 Active
Yves Rocher Ambre Noir, Hoggar
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Intense, Collection M7, La Nuitde l'Homme, Opium Eau d'Orient
Zara (various)
Fougere Oriental
This represents the blending of nearly all the major Oriental components (warm, woody, spicy, and sweet accords) along with refreshing aromatic notes of lavender, rosemary, coumarin, and oakmoss. This group is especially popular with men.
Men's Fougere Oriental perfumes:
Alexandria Ete Sauvage, Greek Horse, Mr. Sillage, Royalty
Alfred Dunhill Desire Black, London
Amouage Jubilation XXV Man
Axe Africa, Anarchy for Him, Dark Temptation, Musk, Phoenix, Signature Rogue
Azzaro Amber Fever, Elixir Bois Precieux, Naughty Leather, Solarissimo Favignana
Burberry Element
Bvlgari Kobraa
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Eternity Now, Euphoria Gold
Carolina Herrra 212 (various)
Caron Impact pour un Homme
Cartier Pasha
Cerruti Si
Chanel pour Monsieur
Chopard Heaven
Christian Dior Sauvage
Claus Porto Musgo Real Agua de Colonia No. 1 Orange Amber
Crabtree & Evelyn Moroccan Myrrh
Dana Canoe
Dzintars Lucky No. 10
Emanuel Ungaro Apparition Homme Intense, Ungaro
Fila for Men
Fiorucci Extreme Sport
Giorgio Armani Attitude, Eau de Nuit, Stronger with You Intensely
Givenchy Play Intense, Xeryus Rouge
Gritti Decimo
Hermes Equipage
Hugo Boss In Motion
Jean Patou
Jean Paul Gautier Le Male (various), Ultra Male
Jequiti l'Attitude Musique, Prive Homme Fortune, So Voce Fabio Jr. Momentos
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Johan Varvatos JVxNJ Crimson
Joop! Homme (various)
Kenneth Cole Mankind Hero
Lacoste Elegance
L'Acqua di Fiori 310, U.Man
Lancome Hypnose
Montale Sliver Aoud
Mugler A*Men (various)
Nikos Sculpture
Oleg Cassini
Oriflame Full Moon, Possess Man
Penhaligon's Agarbathi
Pierre Cardin Bleu Marine
Pino Silvestre Deep Charisma
Rasasi Al Wisam Day
Rochas l'Homme, Monsieur Rochas
Salvatore Ferragamo Acqua Essenziale Blu
Swank Jade East
Thera Cosmeticos (various)
Versace Dreamer
Yves St. Laurent Jazz Prestige, La Nuit, La Nuit Eau Electrique
Zara (various)
Spicy Oriental
The term Oriental applies especially well to this group, since they often have multiple strong, balanced ingredients rather than a specific or signature accord. Hot, sensual, and with a typical zesty and adventuresome spirit, they are a favorite with both genders, especially in the cold winter season. Popular notes include cinnamon, clove, pink pepper, mace, thyme, and nutmeg, and common floral additions are mandarin, bergamot, and orchid, which give the perfume an added Eastern flavor. Amber sometimes is added for more warmth. Men seem to prefer Spicy Orientals that also mix vanilla and resins. This group is has remained popular and less changed than some of the others.
Popular men's products:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Quercia
Alexandria La Dolce Vita, Ovation
Alfred Dunhill Moroccan Amber
Amouage Lyric, Fate
Aramis Classic Reserve, Havana, JHL
Azzaro Decibel
Boucheron Homme Fraicheur 2008, Jaipur
Burberry Brit New Year, London
Bvlgari Man in Black Essence, Le Gemme Yasep
C.O. Bigelow Barber Cologne Elixir, Bay Rum
Calvin Klein Heat, One Shock, Eternity, Obsessed
Carolina Herrera Bad Boy, CH Men, CH Men Grand Tour
Cartier Must, Santos Concentree
Cerruti 1881 Signature
Chanel pour Monsieur Concentree
Christian Dior Fahrenheit, Sauvage
Claus Porto Real Black Edition
Dana English Leather Spiced
Davidoff Hot Water, Hot Water Night
Dolce & Gabbana ll La Force, The One Collector, One Mysterious Night
Emanuel Ungaro pour l'Homme II, Power, U Fever
Ermenegildo Zegna (various)
Floris Palm Springs for Spencer Hart
Fragonard Desert
Giorgio Armani Code (various), Attitude Extreme, Gio 2015
Givenchy Gentlemen Only Absolute
Gucci Made to Measure
Hugo Boss Soul, Scent Absolute, Dark Blue, Red
Jequiti Champs Velocite
Jovan Satisfaction
Karl Lagerfeld Homme, KL, Photo
Korres Saffron Amber Agarwood Cardamom
L'Occitane en Provence Au Bresil - Cumaru
Lacoste Timeless
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac Fire Power
Narciso Rodriguez Intense
Nikos Sculpture Homme God's Night
Oriflame Be the Wild Legend, ID Player, Intense Embrace Him, Manful, Signature Heritage, Voyager
Paco Rabanne Pure XS Night
Panama 1924 Sport, 2.0
Paul Sebastian Silver, Kinetic
Pecksniff's Charismatic
Penhaligon's Endymion, LP No. 9, Uncompromising Sohan
Pierre Cardin Revelation
Rasasi Daarej, Tasmeem
Roja Enigma, Madison
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Rival, Noble
Shulton Old Spice Original
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Xerjoff Coffee Break Golden Dallah, Shooting Stars Kobe
Yardley Bond Street, Cougar
Yves St. Laurent Body Kouros, Opium (various)
Zara (various)
(Vanilla Oriental)
With warm gourmand characters, this group blends already sweet perfumes built on Oriental notes (the usual woods, flowers, spices, and resins) with other sweet components, such as caramel, vanilla, chocolate, almond, honey, and burnt sugar. Products of this type is especially popular among women, but several of them are aimed at men:
Axe Provoke
Carolina Herrera 212 VIP
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength
Frederic Malle Monsieur
Giorgio Armani Night
Guerlain l'Initial
Inessance Terre d'Evasion
Jacques Battini De l'Ambre Shady
Jean Paul Gaultier Kokorico by Night
John Varvatos Rock Volume 1
Joop! Wow!
Mugler A*Men Pure Havane, Angel Glamorama
Oriflame S8 Night
Remy Latour Cigar Vanilla Tonka
Ralph Lauren Ralph Hot
Ted Lapidus Intenso
Thera Cosmeticos Amatus
Yves St. Laurent Black Opium Storm Illusion
(Fresh Oriental)
Often considered a part of the Floral Oriental family, this newer group has a lighter interpretation, with citrus oils included to brighten and lift the aroma, making them more applicable to daytime use while still having an underlying exotic beauty. Examples include:
10 Corso Como Uomo
Acqua di Parma Colonia Mirra
Baldessarini Black
Bvlgari Le Gemme Garanat, Man Black
Davidoff Cool Water Intense
Kenzo Aqua Kenzo Neo
Lacoste Timeless
Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Invictus Legend, Pure XS
Prada Luna Rossa Sport
Rasasi La Yuqawam Ambergris Showers, Relation, Truly, Xtraordinaire Musky
Roja Madison
Royal Copenhagen 1775 Valor
Zara Amber, Blue Spirit, CC Sydney, Denim Couture Red, Weekend Hoodie, Tobacco Intense Dark
(Aromatic Oriental)
This is generally deemed a part of the Floral Oriental collection but is thought to be significantly separate by a few. The fragrances typically possess a very intensive grassy-spicy tone provided by sage, rosemary, cumin, lavender, and other plants, which often is combined with uplifting citrus notes. They seem to be especially popular with men. Included in this group are:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct
Bvlgari Le Gemme Opalon, Man Black Orient
Chanel Allure Sport
Chopard 1000 Miglia Chrono
Giorgio Armani Code A-List
Hugo Boss The Scent
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male, Le Male Aviator
Karl Lagerfled Bois de Cedre
Lacoste Land
Mugler Alien Man
Panama 1924 Espresso Napoletano
Rasasi Power Plus
Roja Risque
Taylor of Old Bond Street Platinum
Xerjoff Coffee Break Golden Moka
Zara C4shmer4n, For Him
Oriental Perfume Name/Concept Controversy
Many experts consider the term 'Oriental' to be misleading and vague or worse. Although there are old and sophisticated fragrance traditions in North Africa, the Middle East, and the Far East, the typical modern perfume of this type has little in common with their classical forms. Amouage Gold, a well-known modern fragrance from the company founded by the Omani royal family, does exploit and typify the cliché, with a signature powdery-mossy accord built around Omani rose and frankincense. But the Oriental family of French perfumery initially grew as part of the stereotypical orientalist Western arts movement of the 19th and early 20th centuries, and like the widely varying philosophies of the artists of that time, the word came to mean many things, often seemingly conflicting. This confusing state has been worsened by the necessity of many of the fragrances being constantly reformulated to keep them in compliance with various governmental regulations.
'Oriental' possibly was used at first to describe perfumes actually made with ingredients from or associated with the Orient, especially the Middle East, and subsequently ingredients that approximated or suggested those 'warm' scents. The first product to use the term in print was Guerlain Shalimar, launched in 1925 in Paris at the International Exhibition of Decorative Arts and described as Oriental "because its suave gourmand notes recall the sweet balsams of the lands of the One Thousand and One Nights." It was said to have been inspired by a maharaja visiting Paris who told Jacques and Raymond Guerlain the story of the gardens of Shalimar, which sheltered the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan and his Persian wife Mumtaz Mahal, for whom he built the Taj Mahal.
Outside the perfume world, 'Oriental' is a word not only reflecting Western fantasies, but also suggesting 19th century and early 20th century European colonialism. In his book Orientalism, Edward Said described it as "a sign of European-Atlantic power of the Orient" and an artificially constructed understanding of what Westerners believed the Orient to be: an exotic, mysterious, and culturally opposite place from the West. The word was used to simultaneously fetishize and degrade Eastern cultures thought to be less sophisticated or 'advanced' than Western ones, and it painted a culturally homogenous image of a vast group of people whose only true similarity was that they were non-European. More recently, it has become clear that when the term is applied to people, it is seen as politically incorrect and insensitive. In 2016 President Obama signed a bill eliminating all uses of the term Oriental from federal law. Grace Meng, a member of Congress from New York who sponsored the bill, called the term "outdated" and "offensive." She said, "Many Americans may not be aware that the word 'Oriental' is derogatory. But it is an insulting term that needed to be removed from the books."
So is the use of the term Oriental a problem in perfumery? Dr. Amy Hanser, Associate Professor of Sociology at the University of British Columbia, says in somewhat typical sociological language, "It points to the ways in which we are sensitive to (negatively) racializing language when applied to people, but we might fail to recognize racializing discourse that is not directly applied to human bodies. But the idea of a perfume being an 'Oriental' fragrance might indeed be drawing upon stereotypes about a region (and its people) that make the term problematic when applied to people."
To some it seems bizarre that it still is being used to describe fragrances. Alexa Nishimoto, a freelance fashion designer with the Japanese American Museum in Los Angeles, says, "It feels like [brands] attempt to use one universal word to convey all Asian cultures, which is reductive to those who know that the nuances of each culture can be vastly different and don't fall under just one umbrella term." Dana El Masri, an independent perfumer, agrees: "[The term Oriental] is outdated and unnecessary. It also doesn't say much about the fragrance family and has become more of a reference to a 'spice' structure that was created in the 1920s than anything else. It is too broad a reference and perpetuates a typically Western/Occidental point of view."
But to traditional perfumers and perfume aficionados, it remains an 'official' classification. Says Marian Bendeth, a fragrance expert and perfumery owner, "It's where it originates, and it's a beautiful thing and certainly helps me because I deal with classifications all the time." She sees the term not as cultural but as geographical, denoting the origin of certain commonly-used fragrance notes.
The non-profit Institute for Art and Olfaction (IAO) refrains from using Oriental as a perfume classification, referring to it only if absolutely necessary as "the category most commonly known as Oriental, which needs renaming." One member of its board of directors, Julianne Lee, says, "I understand that the term is not one that is easy to sidestep for those in the fragrance community as so-called 'Oriental' perfumes are crucial to perfume history. However, I do find it lazy and harmful terminology." El Masri has suggested breaking down the single fragrance family into subfamilies based on geographical regions: "There are huge differences between a fragrance created in Malaysia by Malay people and a Japanese one, obviously, so why not classify it as such?" But many modern perfumes that have evolved from those created a century ago do not fit into geographical definitions at all, which has prompted some experts to propose coining terms such as 'ambery' that describe the actual olfactory notes, although there is wide disagreement about how this could be accomplished. Lee has noted that in terms of primary olfactory notes, so-called Oriental fragrances can generally be divided into two categories: those that incorporate an 'ambreine' accord (bergamot, vanilla, rose) and those that use a 'mellis' ('honey-sweet' or 'pleasant') accord (benzoin, eugenol, lily-of-the-valley, spices), but she also recognizes that many contemporary Oriental scents have branched out and mutated so much that they may not even warrant use of the Oriental label or accord labels at all. "Oftentimes, they are mere attempts at populating the 'Oriental' category, clearly visible from the marketing narrative and strategy."
So the controversy continues.