churchilllafemme
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Fragrance Terms
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Essential Oil vs. Fragrance Oil
There can be some confusion about the differences between essential oils (EOs) and fragrance oils (FOs) used in perfume products. Most simply, EOs are extracts derived from plants and FOs are synthetic chemical scent compounds. Generally, EOs can be used for scenting, flavoring, or healing applications (in aromatherapy), while FOs are used in foods or candies for flavor but are mainly used for their scent qualities. FOs are ubiquitous in commercial cleaning products, room air fresheners, personal care products (including hand sanitizers, toilet paper, and tampons), laundry soap, baby diapers, stationary, foods and drinks, toys, and other products. Hand, face, and body soaps and other skin care products, as well as candles, even items labeled 'natural,' often contain FOs. It is common for a label to say 'contains essential oils' when the item also contains fragrance oils, which contributes to misunderstanding.
Essential Oil (EO)
Essential oils are concentrated hydrophobic liquids containing naturally occurring volatile (easily evaporated at room temperature) chemical compounds. They are derived from different parts of a plant, including blossoms, fruits, seeds, leaves, roots, stems, barks, woods, or resins. Generally they are not manipulated significantly, processed, or diluted with a carrier oil or other additives (except for dilution in aromatherapy) before use. They can also be known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, or aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as 'oil of clove.' An EO is considered essential in the sense that it contains the 'essence' of a plant's fragrance. The term essential does not mean indispensable to a living organism the way it does with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid.
Some plants, like bitter orange, can be sources for several different types of EO.
EOs generally are extracted by distillation, usually with steam and most often single-process rather than fractional; but they also can be obtained by cold pressure expression, solvent extraction, sfumatura (mechanical folding), absolute oil extraction, and wax embedding. Most of the common oils, such as lavender, peppermint, tea tree, patchouli, and eucalyptus, are steam-distilled in an alembic. In single-process distillation, water is heated and its steam passes through the plant material and vaporizes the volatile compounds. The vapor flows through a coil, where it condenses back to liquid that is then collected in a receiving vessel. The re-condensed water is called a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence. Those marketed as hydrosols include rose water, lemon balm, clary sage, and orange blossom water.
Most citrus peel oils are expressed or cold-pressed mechanically, similar to olive oil extraction, and due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and the low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus oils are cheaper than most other EOs. They are obtained for the most part as byproducts of the citrus fruit industry. Historically, prior to the discovery of the distillation process, all EOs were extracted by pressing.
Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat of steam distillation. Instead, they are extracted with a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide (a fluid state of CO2 in which it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure, expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid). Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called concretes. While highly fragrant, they are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other oil-soluble plant materials. Usually the concrete is then chilled in an alcohol solution to cause the waxes and other lipids to precipitate out. The precipitate is filtered, and the ethanol is removed by evaporation and/or vacuum purging, leaving behind the 'absolute.'
Use of supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent in fluid extraction avoids the presence of petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some perfume 'top notes' that occur when steam distillation is used. The supercritical CO2 process extracts both the waxes and the essential oils, which are subsequently processed with liquid CO2 by temperature lowering under pressure. The cooling separates the waxes from the oils, and the lower temperature prevents decomposition of compounds. When the extraction is complete, pressure is reduced to ambient levels and the carbon dioxide reverts to gas, leaving no residue.
EOs are used for fragrance in perfumes, cosmetics, incense, soaps, and cleaning products, and for flavoring foods and drinks. In aromatherapy, frequently considered a form of alternative medicine and more popular again in recent decades after a period of decline, pure EOs that enter the body through the skin (via massage when mixed with a carrier oil such as jojoba, coconut, wheat germ, olive, or avocado; or via bathwater) or the nose (via volatile diffuser, burning candle or incense, or humidifier) are used to influence physical, emotional, and mental health. They are reputed to enhance mood, relieve inflammation or symptoms such as pain or fatigue, and kill body germs. However, while research continues, there is not yet much clinical evidence that they can effectively treat any specific condition.
Each EO component can have both positive and negative effects either topically or internally, depending upon its particular properties and concentration, and can be toxic. One well-known example is cinnamon oil, touted for its antiseptic and astringent capabilities yet highly irritating to some skin. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper EO use, especially at high concentrations, and when the oils are swallowed. EOs also can cause immunologically-mediated allergic reactions in those allergic to the source material.
The quality of EOs can vary widely, with the quality of a given batch of oil being influenced by how the plants are grown (including use of insecticides and other chemicals), possible processing (including dilution or adulteration during extraction), packaging and handling (with exposures to heat, light, or oxygen), and storage. The usual shelf life of an EO is around 1-2 years after opening.
EOs have been used in folk medicine for centuries, with the earliest recorded mention of the techniques for EO production believed to be that of an al-Andalusian (Muslim Spain) physician-chemist, Ibn al-Baitar (1188-1248). Modern academic studies typically discuss the specific chemical compounds of which EOs are composed, such as referring to methyl salicylate rather than 'oil of wintergreen.' Medical uses of EOs, for treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.
Finally, some EOs can act as natural pesticides against insects and arthropods, repelling, inhibiting growth or reproduction, or causing animal death at concentrations that are nontoxic for mammals. Some that have been investigated for this use include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme peppermint, and eucalyptus. They have been used commercially to a limited extent, and their popularity is increasing among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers.
EOs are typically more expensive than FOs because it is costly to plant, grow, harvest, and process the plants, although this varies with the type of oil, the season, and the availability of the product. Steam distillation, expression, and solvent extraction can be complicated and expensive, and a very large amount of plant material is required to produce even a small quantity of essential oil. For example, around 1000 rose petals are needed to make just one drop of rose EO. Citrus EOs, on the other hand, are normally cheaper because they are easier to extract. Each particular EO is comprised of between 50 and 500 different naturally occurring chemicals, which are quite difficult to reproduce synthetically and some of which have not even been identified chemically yet. In addition, depending on the season, climate, and growing conditions of a plant, the biochemical makeup - and thus the scent and/or taste - of a particular EO will vary, and it is difficult for manufacturers and crafters to keep their finished products consistent.
Commonly used EOs in perfumery include lavender, chamomile, rose, hyssop, clary sage, rosemary, ylang-ylang, myrrh, vetiver, frankincense, grapefruit, peppermint, spearmint, wintergreen, basil, orange, melaleuca (tea tree), lemon , cassia, and oregano.
Fragrance Oil (FO)
Fragrance oils are artificially manufactured compounds (or natural EOs that have been diluted with a carrier such as propylene glycol, vegetable oil, or mineral oil) created in a laboratory and specifically designed to mimic naturally occurring scents or to invoke a feeling (such as 'spring rain') or emotion. They are also known as aroma oils, aromatic oils, or flavor oils.
The range of FO scents is enormous, and generally they are relatively inexpensive. They are used primarily in the manufacture of perfumes, cosmetics, and flavorings. For reasons of animal cruelty or because of animal population decreases and endangerment, historically popular perfume fragrance notes such as civet, musk, ambergris and castoreum, derived from animals through processes that typically mistreat or kill the animals that create the scent sources, now have been replaced in large part by synthetic versions or products naturally derived from plants producing similar fragrances.
FOs seem to be problematic more often than EOs in personal care products because they can be drying and more irritating to the skin in concentrations commonly used, and they are thought to be capable of causing many other potentially serious health problems. They often are less desirable than plant-derived EOs for allergic or otherwise sensitive people, commonly causing headaches, dizziness, rashes, coughing, nausea and vomiting, and skin irritation. In official terms of being health hazards, a synthetic version of the same chemical compound as in a natural EO is usually deemed comparable. Recent studies of FOs have suggested 'possible mutagenic and genotoxic effects' and hormone disruptions that are linked to abnormal cell reproduction and tumor growth.
'Natural' vs. Synthetic Fragrance Oils
There is a difference between 'natural' and totally synthetic types of FOs. 'Natural' FOs are made in a laboratory but are created by isolating aromatic components from a naturally occurring complex complete scent. There is debate about whether they can be considered truly natural, since they are still created by human science although derived from a natural source. Totally synthetic FOs are created with chemical compounds that do not exist in nature, often composed of petroleum by-products, which makes them cheap and versatile. Many commercial scent products are made with synthetic fragrances because they retain their aromas for longer periods of time than natural oils. Manufacturers sometimes will market their FOs with misleading names such as 'pikake oil' or 'plumeria oil,' which actually are simply synthetic oils infused with a small amount of extract from the actual flowers. This is true especially with floral scents like cherry blossom or freesia, fruit scents like peach, watermelon, or banana, and scents with names that sound 'natural' such as 'white rain.'
Commonly used fragrance oils in perfumery include ylang-ylang, vanilla, sandalwood, cedarwood, mandarin orange, cinnamon, lemongrass, rosehip, and peppermint.
Mixing Essential Oils and Fragrance Oils
Generally EOs and FOs mix well if you wish to combine them. Rather than shaking the mixture, the bottle should be warmed between the hands and then gently rolled on a table or tipped upside down a few times. Any mixture should be left in a cool, shaded area for a week for all the initial components to blend well before it is used or tweaked again.
There can be some confusion about the differences between essential oils (EOs) and fragrance oils (FOs) used in perfume products. Most simply, EOs are extracts derived from plants and FOs are synthetic chemical scent compounds. Generally, EOs can be used for scenting, flavoring, or healing applications (in aromatherapy), while FOs are used in foods or candies for flavor but are mainly used for their scent qualities. FOs are ubiquitous in commercial cleaning products, room air fresheners, personal care products (including hand sanitizers, toilet paper, and tampons), laundry soap, baby diapers, stationary, foods and drinks, toys, and other products. Hand, face, and body soaps and other skin care products, as well as candles, even items labeled 'natural,' often contain FOs. It is common for a label to say 'contains essential oils' when the item also contains fragrance oils, which contributes to misunderstanding.
Essential Oil (EO)
Essential oils are concentrated hydrophobic liquids containing naturally occurring volatile (easily evaporated at room temperature) chemical compounds. They are derived from different parts of a plant, including blossoms, fruits, seeds, leaves, roots, stems, barks, woods, or resins. Generally they are not manipulated significantly, processed, or diluted with a carrier oil or other additives (except for dilution in aromatherapy) before use. They can also be known as volatile oils, ethereal oils, or aetherolea, or simply as the oil of the plant from which they were extracted, such as 'oil of clove.' An EO is considered essential in the sense that it contains the 'essence' of a plant's fragrance. The term essential does not mean indispensable to a living organism the way it does with the terms essential amino acid or essential fatty acid.
Some plants, like bitter orange, can be sources for several different types of EO.
EOs generally are extracted by distillation, usually with steam and most often single-process rather than fractional; but they also can be obtained by cold pressure expression, solvent extraction, sfumatura (mechanical folding), absolute oil extraction, and wax embedding. Most of the common oils, such as lavender, peppermint, tea tree, patchouli, and eucalyptus, are steam-distilled in an alembic. In single-process distillation, water is heated and its steam passes through the plant material and vaporizes the volatile compounds. The vapor flows through a coil, where it condenses back to liquid that is then collected in a receiving vessel. The re-condensed water is called a hydrosol, hydrolat, herbal distillate, or plant water essence. Those marketed as hydrosols include rose water, lemon balm, clary sage, and orange blossom water.
Most citrus peel oils are expressed or cold-pressed mechanically, similar to olive oil extraction, and due to the relatively large quantities of oil in citrus peel and the low cost to grow and harvest the raw materials, citrus oils are cheaper than most other EOs. They are obtained for the most part as byproducts of the citrus fruit industry. Historically, prior to the discovery of the distillation process, all EOs were extracted by pressing.
Most flowers contain too little volatile oil to undergo expression, but their chemical components are too delicate and easily denatured by the high heat of steam distillation. Instead, they are extracted with a solvent such as hexane or supercritical carbon dioxide (a fluid state of CO2 in which it is held at or above its critical temperature and critical pressure, expanding to fill its container like a gas but with a density like that of a liquid). Extracts from hexane and other hydrophobic solvents are called concretes. While highly fragrant, they are a mixture of essential oil, waxes, resins, and other oil-soluble plant materials. Usually the concrete is then chilled in an alcohol solution to cause the waxes and other lipids to precipitate out. The precipitate is filtered, and the ethanol is removed by evaporation and/or vacuum purging, leaving behind the 'absolute.'
Use of supercritical carbon dioxide as a solvent in fluid extraction avoids the presence of petrochemical residues in the product and the loss of some perfume 'top notes' that occur when steam distillation is used. The supercritical CO2 process extracts both the waxes and the essential oils, which are subsequently processed with liquid CO2 by temperature lowering under pressure. The cooling separates the waxes from the oils, and the lower temperature prevents decomposition of compounds. When the extraction is complete, pressure is reduced to ambient levels and the carbon dioxide reverts to gas, leaving no residue.
EOs are used for fragrance in perfumes, cosmetics, incense, soaps, and cleaning products, and for flavoring foods and drinks. In aromatherapy, frequently considered a form of alternative medicine and more popular again in recent decades after a period of decline, pure EOs that enter the body through the skin (via massage when mixed with a carrier oil such as jojoba, coconut, wheat germ, olive, or avocado; or via bathwater) or the nose (via volatile diffuser, burning candle or incense, or humidifier) are used to influence physical, emotional, and mental health. They are reputed to enhance mood, relieve inflammation or symptoms such as pain or fatigue, and kill body germs. However, while research continues, there is not yet much clinical evidence that they can effectively treat any specific condition.
Each EO component can have both positive and negative effects either topically or internally, depending upon its particular properties and concentration, and can be toxic. One well-known example is cinnamon oil, touted for its antiseptic and astringent capabilities yet highly irritating to some skin. Children may be particularly susceptible to the toxic effects of improper EO use, especially at high concentrations, and when the oils are swallowed. EOs also can cause immunologically-mediated allergic reactions in those allergic to the source material.
The quality of EOs can vary widely, with the quality of a given batch of oil being influenced by how the plants are grown (including use of insecticides and other chemicals), possible processing (including dilution or adulteration during extraction), packaging and handling (with exposures to heat, light, or oxygen), and storage. The usual shelf life of an EO is around 1-2 years after opening.
EOs have been used in folk medicine for centuries, with the earliest recorded mention of the techniques for EO production believed to be that of an al-Andalusian (Muslim Spain) physician-chemist, Ibn al-Baitar (1188-1248). Modern academic studies typically discuss the specific chemical compounds of which EOs are composed, such as referring to methyl salicylate rather than 'oil of wintergreen.' Medical uses of EOs, for treatment of cancers in particular, are now subject to regulation in most countries.
Finally, some EOs can act as natural pesticides against insects and arthropods, repelling, inhibiting growth or reproduction, or causing animal death at concentrations that are nontoxic for mammals. Some that have been investigated for this use include rose, lemon grass, lavender, thyme peppermint, and eucalyptus. They have been used commercially to a limited extent, and their popularity is increasing among organic farmers and environmentally conscious consumers.
EOs are typically more expensive than FOs because it is costly to plant, grow, harvest, and process the plants, although this varies with the type of oil, the season, and the availability of the product. Steam distillation, expression, and solvent extraction can be complicated and expensive, and a very large amount of plant material is required to produce even a small quantity of essential oil. For example, around 1000 rose petals are needed to make just one drop of rose EO. Citrus EOs, on the other hand, are normally cheaper because they are easier to extract. Each particular EO is comprised of between 50 and 500 different naturally occurring chemicals, which are quite difficult to reproduce synthetically and some of which have not even been identified chemically yet. In addition, depending on the season, climate, and growing conditions of a plant, the biochemical makeup - and thus the scent and/or taste - of a particular EO will vary, and it is difficult for manufacturers and crafters to keep their finished products consistent.
Commonly used EOs in perfumery include lavender, chamomile, rose, hyssop, clary sage, rosemary, ylang-ylang, myrrh, vetiver, frankincense, grapefruit, peppermint, spearmint, wintergreen, basil, orange, melaleuca (tea tree), lemon , cassia, and oregano.
Fragrance Oil (FO)
Fragrance oils are artificially manufactured compounds (or natural EOs that have been diluted with a carrier such as propylene glycol, vegetable oil, or mineral oil) created in a laboratory and specifically designed to mimic naturally occurring scents or to invoke a feeling (such as 'spring rain') or emotion. They are also known as aroma oils, aromatic oils, or flavor oils.
The range of FO scents is enormous, and generally they are relatively inexpensive. They are used primarily in the manufacture of perfumes, cosmetics, and flavorings. For reasons of animal cruelty or because of animal population decreases and endangerment, historically popular perfume fragrance notes such as civet, musk, ambergris and castoreum, derived from animals through processes that typically mistreat or kill the animals that create the scent sources, now have been replaced in large part by synthetic versions or products naturally derived from plants producing similar fragrances.
FOs seem to be problematic more often than EOs in personal care products because they can be drying and more irritating to the skin in concentrations commonly used, and they are thought to be capable of causing many other potentially serious health problems. They often are less desirable than plant-derived EOs for allergic or otherwise sensitive people, commonly causing headaches, dizziness, rashes, coughing, nausea and vomiting, and skin irritation. In official terms of being health hazards, a synthetic version of the same chemical compound as in a natural EO is usually deemed comparable. Recent studies of FOs have suggested 'possible mutagenic and genotoxic effects' and hormone disruptions that are linked to abnormal cell reproduction and tumor growth.
'Natural' vs. Synthetic Fragrance Oils
There is a difference between 'natural' and totally synthetic types of FOs. 'Natural' FOs are made in a laboratory but are created by isolating aromatic components from a naturally occurring complex complete scent. There is debate about whether they can be considered truly natural, since they are still created by human science although derived from a natural source. Totally synthetic FOs are created with chemical compounds that do not exist in nature, often composed of petroleum by-products, which makes them cheap and versatile. Many commercial scent products are made with synthetic fragrances because they retain their aromas for longer periods of time than natural oils. Manufacturers sometimes will market their FOs with misleading names such as 'pikake oil' or 'plumeria oil,' which actually are simply synthetic oils infused with a small amount of extract from the actual flowers. This is true especially with floral scents like cherry blossom or freesia, fruit scents like peach, watermelon, or banana, and scents with names that sound 'natural' such as 'white rain.'
Commonly used fragrance oils in perfumery include ylang-ylang, vanilla, sandalwood, cedarwood, mandarin orange, cinnamon, lemongrass, rosehip, and peppermint.
Mixing Essential Oils and Fragrance Oils
Generally EOs and FOs mix well if you wish to combine them. Rather than shaking the mixture, the bottle should be warmed between the hands and then gently rolled on a table or tipped upside down a few times. Any mixture should be left in a cool, shaded area for a week for all the initial components to blend well before it is used or tweaked again.
churchilllafemme
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Fougère
The name for this type of scent comes from the French word for fern, and the profile typically has a primary note reminiscent of a shadowy rainforest's flora. The name originated with Houbigant Parfum's Fougère Royale, created in 1882 by perfumer Paul Parquet. Houbigant is an old and renowned French perfume house, established in 1775 and famous for creating fragrances for members of royal families; it was said to be a favorite of Queen Marie Antoinette. The association of the fougère scent with ferns often has been called an imaginary one, since fern plants supposedly have no scent. However, a few people have claimed that damp ferns actually do have a smell somewhat like loamy earth and hay, suggesting the presence of pine balsam and other wet foliage, and that the smell varies depending upon the species of fern.
Fougère Royale was the first fragrance that included a synthetic component, the chemical compound coumarin, which was created from coal tar. Coumarin had been discovered in 1868 by the English chemist Henry Perkion. Blended with lavender and oakmoss, it creates the woody base for fougère fragrances. Coumarin can be found in nature in some plants such as sweet clover, bison grass, woodruff, lavender, and South American tonka bean. Its name comes from the French word 'coumaru,' which means 'Tonka bean.' Perfumers claim that it is present in concentrations exceeding 1% in about half of the world's fragrances and appears in 90% of them.
Parquet at first devoted the Fougère Royale fragrance to women; but since it subsequently was primarily purchased and used by men, especially the dandies of the time, his classification and marketing of it changed. It had an overall note that captured at the time the imagination of Western Europeans who were in search of pathways for recalling nature in an increasingly urbanized and industrial landscape. Since that time the majority of fragrances in the category have been for men, with the Chypre family its feminine counterpart. Because it included for the first time a synthetic factor, Fougère Royale set a precedent that opened up the world of scents, previously consisting of simple 'natural' products, to the creative imaginations of perfumers. Production of Fougère Royale was stopped in 1950, although unsuccessful attempts to recreate and update it were undertaken in 1959 and 1988. Under the ownership of the Dana Company, Houbigant re-introduced the fragrance in 2010, changed somewhat due to decreased ingredient availability and health regulations.
The fougère family usually is included in the broad green category of scents. These products are usually based for the most part on 'natural themes' that smell like plants, leaves, and grasses. The green factors provide bright, strong accents that can be found as top or middle notes in compositions. Fougère perfumes almost invariably feature lavender as a sweet top note, along with geranium, bergamot (for brightness), oakmoss (for woodiness and further sweetness), and coumarin (for freshness). Although the family has evolved dramatically over the past century, it has maintained its basic accord and multifaceted quality. Modern fougère creations often have various citrus, herbaceous, floral, and animalic notes added. Common additions include vetiver, galbanum, amber, sandalwood, guaiac wood, rosemary, sage, and other herbs. Fougère subclasses, building upon the same basic skeleton, include Citrus, Woody, Leather, Aquatic, Green, Fruity, Spicy, and Aromatic Fougères. Over time fougère fragrances fell out of favor, but more recently they have enjoyed a resurgence in popularity, with modern perfumers adding new twists to the classic combination. Generally they remain herbaceous and are characterized by a tobacco-like warmth, a fierce aromatic intensity with an almost 'bitter' character, and a dry, grassy and hay-like drydown. Clean and fresh, they are quite versatile and can be worn on a wide variety of occasions.
Examples of men's fragrances which fall into the fougère class include Brut by Fabergé, Paco Rabanne pour Homme, Azzaro pour Homme, Boss by Hugo Boss, Prada for Men, Eternity for Men by Calvin Klein, Canoe for Men by Dana, Dolce & Gabbana pour Homme, Drakkar Noir by Guy Laroche, Tabac for Men, Michael for Men by Michael Kors, Davidoff Cool Water, Penhaligon's Sartorial, Clubman Pinaud and Special Reserve, Polo Blue and Chaps by Ralph Lauren, and Kouros by Yves Saint Laurent.
The name for this type of scent comes from the French word for fern, and the profile typically has a primary note reminiscent of a shadowy rainforest's flora. The name originated with Houbigant Parfum's Fougère Royale, created in 1882 by perfumer Paul Parquet. Houbigant is an old and renowned French perfume house, established in 1775 and famous for creating fragrances for members of royal families; it was said to be a favorite of Queen Marie Antoinette. The association of the fougère scent with ferns often has been called an imaginary one, since fern plants supposedly have no scent. However, a few people have claimed that damp ferns actually do have a smell somewhat like loamy earth and hay, suggesting the presence of pine balsam and other wet foliage, and that the smell varies depending upon the species of fern.
Fougère Royale was the first fragrance that included a synthetic component, the chemical compound coumarin, which was created from coal tar. Coumarin had been discovered in 1868 by the English chemist Henry Perkion. Blended with lavender and oakmoss, it creates the woody base for fougère fragrances. Coumarin can be found in nature in some plants such as sweet clover, bison grass, woodruff, lavender, and South American tonka bean. Its name comes from the French word 'coumaru,' which means 'Tonka bean.' Perfumers claim that it is present in concentrations exceeding 1% in about half of the world's fragrances and appears in 90% of them.
Parquet at first devoted the Fougère Royale fragrance to women; but since it subsequently was primarily purchased and used by men, especially the dandies of the time, his classification and marketing of it changed. It had an overall note that captured at the time the imagination of Western Europeans who were in search of pathways for recalling nature in an increasingly urbanized and industrial landscape. Since that time the majority of fragrances in the category have been for men, with the Chypre family its feminine counterpart. Because it included for the first time a synthetic factor, Fougère Royale set a precedent that opened up the world of scents, previously consisting of simple 'natural' products, to the creative imaginations of perfumers. Production of Fougère Royale was stopped in 1950, although unsuccessful attempts to recreate and update it were undertaken in 1959 and 1988. Under the ownership of the Dana Company, Houbigant re-introduced the fragrance in 2010, changed somewhat due to decreased ingredient availability and health regulations.
The fougère family usually is included in the broad green category of scents. These products are usually based for the most part on 'natural themes' that smell like plants, leaves, and grasses. The green factors provide bright, strong accents that can be found as top or middle notes in compositions. Fougère perfumes almost invariably feature lavender as a sweet top note, along with geranium, bergamot (for brightness), oakmoss (for woodiness and further sweetness), and coumarin (for freshness). Although the family has evolved dramatically over the past century, it has maintained its basic accord and multifaceted quality. Modern fougère creations often have various citrus, herbaceous, floral, and animalic notes added. Common additions include vetiver, galbanum, amber, sandalwood, guaiac wood, rosemary, sage, and other herbs. Fougère subclasses, building upon the same basic skeleton, include Citrus, Woody, Leather, Aquatic, Green, Fruity, Spicy, and Aromatic Fougères. Over time fougère fragrances fell out of favor, but more recently they have enjoyed a resurgence in popularity, with modern perfumers adding new twists to the classic combination. Generally they remain herbaceous and are characterized by a tobacco-like warmth, a fierce aromatic intensity with an almost 'bitter' character, and a dry, grassy and hay-like drydown. Clean and fresh, they are quite versatile and can be worn on a wide variety of occasions.
Examples of men's fragrances which fall into the fougère class include Brut by Fabergé, Paco Rabanne pour Homme, Azzaro pour Homme, Boss by Hugo Boss, Prada for Men, Eternity for Men by Calvin Klein, Canoe for Men by Dana, Dolce & Gabbana pour Homme, Drakkar Noir by Guy Laroche, Tabac for Men, Michael for Men by Michael Kors, Davidoff Cool Water, Penhaligon's Sartorial, Clubman Pinaud and Special Reserve, Polo Blue and Chaps by Ralph Lauren, and Kouros by Yves Saint Laurent.
churchilllafemme
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Sandalwood
Sandalwood is a classic fragrance. It has an Oriental woody-floral odor profile, creamy, smooth, soft, and sensual. As a single fragrance, sandalwood is sweet, green, and nutty in its top aspects and warm and rich in later phases. It blends well with almost all oils, and it pairs well with floral or other wood scents such as violet, rose, orange blossom, jasmine, ylang-ylang, cypress, patchouli, and oakmoss. It frequently is combined with musk, amber, tea, cumin, and spices such as cinnamon, clary sage, coriander, fennel, pepper, and clove. It complements and balances frankincense and myrrh especially well. Like vetiver and amber, it is used primarily as a base note for perfumes in the Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Chypre families. It lacks the sharpness of rosewood, cedarwood, and vetiver, and to some noses it is perceived as animalic. At higher concentrations, sandalwood can overpower other components of a composition, but at lower levels it adds softness, fullness, and roundness, as well as acting as a fixative for more volatile head note ingredients, enhancing their longevity.
Initially during the Georgian era of perfumery (ca. 1714-1835), sandalwood was considered to be a masculine scent, but in 1796 the perfumer James Floris developed Staphanotis, a feminine fragrance that blended base notes of sandalwood and musk with orange blossom, staphanotis, and lily of the valley. Subsequently sandalwood has become much more popular in feminine perfumes, used in the base of almost half of them produced since that time.
The name comes from the Sanskrit chandanam (also meaning 'soothing') or sandanam in Tamil. Sandalwood is a medium-sized parasitic evergreen tree (getting nutrients from other trees in its early stages) with slender drooping branches and brown or red bark. The leaves are 3-4 cm long and elliptic, and the small unscented flowers are numerous and pale straw to brownish-purple. The tree produces fruit, and birds disperse its seeds. It grows relatively slowly and can live up to 100 years. The wood is hard and fine-grained, with the sapwood pale green or white and odorless and the heartwood yellowish-brown and strongly scented. The concentration of fragrant oil increases with the tree's age, and unlike many other aromatic woods, it retains its fragrance for decades if stored properly.
Indian sandalwood (Santalum album, sometimes called 'East Indian sandalwood' since colonial times) is thought to be indigenous to southern India and East Timor and introduced to Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Australia, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands. It belongs to the family of woods that includes rosewood, cedar, and cinnamon tree. Other Santalum species are native to many other regions. The highest quality tree has been Mysore white sandalwood from southern India and Tamil Nadu, now reduced almost to extinction by overharvesting. At one time 70-90% of the world's sandalwood oil production was in India, but the majority now comes from Australia. All sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal now are government-owned, but despite some measures of government protection, illegal logging and trading continue on a large scale (partly due to law enforcement corruption), as does associated clandestine dilution, which makes the oil less desirable.
Native Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum), a different species with a sharper, more resinous, and earthy but still quite pleasant odor, has replaced S. album for most perfumery. Production of Australian oil peaked in 2009 and has continued at significant levels. However, with increasing use of synthetic sandalwood substitutes in perfumery and personal care products, a growing proportion of Australia's natural oil production has been diverted to the chewing tobacco industry.
Overall, there are at least 25 species in the genus Santalum. New Caledonian sandalwood (S. austrocaledonicum), growing on that archipelago and on Vanuatu, produces a very high-quality oil that is quite similar to the Indian oil. Species grown in Hawaii also have been of high quality and were actively exploited in the late 18th and early 19th centuries until the tree supply finally dwindled. Others that have been used intermittently include red sandalwood, false sandalwood, camwood, and bastard sandalwood. Typically they lose their aroma more quickly than the Indian or Australian species. African sandalwood and the so-called 'American sandalwood' or sea torchwood have nothing in common botanically with S. album, and their oils are chemically quite different; but they are several times cheaper than Santalum species, and although their oils differ considerably in smell for most people, they are similar enough to have been used, sometimes surreptitiously, in products called 'sandalwood,' especially niche products.
Sandalwood essential oil is most often obtained from the wood through steam distillation. It can also be extracted less efficiently through water distillation, solvent extraction, and vacuum co-distillation. Because it can regenerate from the stump, the tree was cut down for harvesting in the past, but now it more often is completely uprooted during the rainy season. Consequently the oil can be distilled from all the wood, including the trunk, branches, and roots, in order maximize profit. The wood is ground to powder and soaked in water for about 48 hours before distillation. The four-step steam-distillation process (boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation) takes 18-36 hours to complete, longer than nearly all other essential oils.
In the past, only trees older than 40-80 years and at full maturity, with the highest concentration of fragrance in the heartwood, were used for oil, but today the average age of trees commercially harvested is 8-16 years (or a minimum of 15 years in Australia). The pale gold-brown, moderately viscous oil retains fragrance for a long time when stored. The source of the fragrance is santalol, in its alpha and beta isomers. Australian sandalwood oil contains 35-40% santalol, while Indian sandalwood has had 70-90%, with the superior Mysore type having a minimum of 90%. Eugenols provide a minor additional 'smoke-dried' aspect, and carbonyl compounds add flowery undertones. The overall sandalwood oil composition depends on the species, region grown, soil location, age of tree, and possibly the season of harvest and extraction process, and thus there can be significant variability.
The S. album species population is now recognized as 'vulnerable,' and since 2004 Indian sandalwood has been listed on the IUCN Red List. Other than the oil produced by its own governmental growers, India has banned extraction of oil and export of sandalwood materials. Efforts are underway internationally to save the trees from extinction and regenerate S. album production. In addition to the subsidized government farming in the Indian state of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Indian sandalwood, including the Mysore type, now is grown on large plantations in western Australia alongside the indigenous Australian variety. With newer techniques of irrigation and fertilization, tree growth has been boosted so that a 15-year-old tree has the same oil levels as a 30-year-old tree did in the past. Australian producers in Kununurra are increasingly planting Indian trees, but whether establishment and growth of new plantations there can significantly restore the groves as a source of oil remains to be seen.
With decreasing stocks of Mysore and other Indian sandalwood, perfumers have had to reformulate their perfume products, some of which - especially the most renowned - were purported at one time to contain up to 40% natural sandalwood. Scientists have tried unsuccessfully for decades to develop protocols for the commercial synthesis of organic sandalwood oil, but efforts continue with new developments in biotechnology that raise hopes for the future. Companies also have been trying to find synthetic substitutes that imitate the chemical structure and scent of the natural oil. The first substitute molecule was discovered in Germany in 1947, with subsequent further evolution, including development of Santalidol in the Soviet Union. Santalidol, a mixture of several substances with similar structures, was mass produced commercially beginning in 1956. Since then, variations of it having somewhat differing ingredient ratios and smells have been marketed, with Sandalore and Bagdanol being the most common by the 1970s, as use of natural sandalwood oil began to decrease. The alternative probably best-known historically is Sandenol, whose chemical structure is most closely related to the santalol isomers and which was said to have an aroma quite similar to that of the natural oil. Among other widely used alternates are Javanol, Polysantol, Firsantol, Levosandol, Ebanol, Fleursandol, and HomoPolysantol. Javanol, Ebanol, Sandela, Santaliff, and Santalore have been claimed by their users to be the strongest and most true to natural sandalwood, but there is disagreement, and none can exactly match the complexity and richness of true sandalwood. Due to its unique technical properties (lasting power, strength, diffusivity, and ability to mix well with other compounds), Javanol from Givaudan has become the favorite among modern perfumers. A major advantage of synthetic oils over the natural form is that they provide consistency of composition and quality from batch to batch.
The documented use of sandalwood goes back about 4000 years to India, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Ramayana, an Indian epic poem written in the 4th century BCE, first mentions the ancient burning of sandalwood slivers as incense. When sandalwood was abundant, especially in the 15th to 17th centuries, many temples and other structures were built with its timber, as were sculptures and furniture. In Egypt, it was an embalming ingredient and was believed to release the souls of the dead in reincarnation. It has been highly prized for wood carving, including creation of religious icons, rosaries, fans, sewing boxes, and toys, and this still is done using wood from trimmings and immature trees killed by disease. Sandalwood has been used in solid perfumes for centuries by Arab perfumers. In the 18th century it became a popular ingredient in European perfumes and cosmetics, and it also was used then to scent Spanish Córdoban leather.
Sandalwood oil and wood have been a part of many different religious practices, including Hinduism, Sufism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Shamanism, and Taoism. The wood of the tree is powdered and made into a paste that is integral to many rituals and ceremonies, and it is used to decorate icons and altars. The paste and oil (applied to the forehead, neck, or chest) and the smoke from burning sandalwood incense have been thought to calm and focus the mind for meditation and prayer. Indian paintings show images of snakes curling around sandalwood trees, representing legends in which the tree is said to release such a beautiful scent that serpents are charmed by it.
The essential oil is used in aromatherapy for its stress-reducing, calming, and soothing properties, and it is considered to be an aphrodisiac, especially in massage oil. It is a natural astringent, firming and toning the skin. It has been used for centuries in Chinese and Indian Ayurvedic medicine as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, analgesic, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, hypotensive, and sedative. Sandalwood is claimed to be beneficial for rheumatism and gout, and it may have benefits for treating anxiety and depression and even cancers. Synthetic sandalwoods have been shown to stimulate skin OR2AT3 receptors, which may promote wound healing and scalp hair growth.
Aboriginal Australians eat sandalwood seed kernels, nuts, and fruit, and early European settlers there used the fruit in making jams, chutneys, and pies. Modern chefs have experimented with the nut as a substitute for macadamia, almond, and hazelnut, especially in Southeast Asian-style cuisine. The oil and some of the synthetic sandalwood analogues are used as a flavoring agent in candy, ice cream, baked goods, puddings, gelatin, and beverages. Due to its preservative and antiseptic properties, sandalwood often is included in soaps, other beauty products, candles, air fresheners, and industrial products. Finally, because of its low fluorescence and optimal refractive index, sandalwood oil has been used as an immersion oil for microscopy. There has not been extensive research conducted on the safety of sandalwood oil, but because there have not been any significant adverse effects documented in the scientific literature, it generally is considered quite safe and continues to be used commonly.
Many sandalwood perfume products have 'sandalwood,' 'sandalo,' or 'santal' in their names and can be identified easily. Other scents without those words in their names but with significant a sandalwood presence and usually designated as masculine include the following:
Aesop Marrakech Intense
Amouage Interlude, Epic, Memoir
Aramis Havana
Balenciaga Eau
Blanche Byredo Blanche
Burberry Mr. Burberry
By Killian Sacred Wood
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria, Contradiction
Cartier Declaration d'un Soir
Caswell Massey Tricorn
Chanel Egoiste, Bleu
Christian Dior Leather Oud, Patchouli Imperial, Vetiver
Comme des Garcons Concrete, Wonderwood
Creed Himalaya, Bois du Portugal, Silver Mountain Water
D.R. Harris Marlborough
Davidoff Cool Water
Dior Fahrenheit
Diptyque Tam Dao
Dolce & Gabbana D&G
Donna Karan Chaos
Dunhill 51.3 N
Fabi per Lui
Fragonard Zizanie
Fulton & Roark Shackleford
Gucci Envy, Rush
Guerlain Habit Rouge, l'Eau Boisee, l'Instant, Heritage, Arsene Lupin Voyou
Guy Laroche Drakka Noir
Hermes Bel Ami
Histoire de Parfums 1725 Casanova
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jill Sander Man III
L'Acqua di Fiori Tennis
Laurent Mazzone Black Oud
Le Cherche Midi
Lush Smuggler's Soul
Maître Parfumeur et Gantier Grain de Plaisir
Maurer & Wirtz Marrakech Tale
Oscar de la Renta pour Lui
Pal Zileri Sartoriale
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet
Prada l'Homme
Profumum Roma Olibanum
Proraso Red
Revillon pour Homme
Rochas Macassar
Rosendo Mateu No. 1, No. 6
Scorpio Gold
Shaik Gold
Stetson Preferred Stock, Caliber
Tom Ford Exxtreme, Noir
Tom Frank Black 1
Valentino Noir Absolu
Van Heusen
Versace Black Jeans
Xerjoff Richwood
Yves St. Laurent Jazz
Zadig & Voltaire This is Him
Zara For Him 2018, No Night
Sandalwood is a classic fragrance. It has an Oriental woody-floral odor profile, creamy, smooth, soft, and sensual. As a single fragrance, sandalwood is sweet, green, and nutty in its top aspects and warm and rich in later phases. It blends well with almost all oils, and it pairs well with floral or other wood scents such as violet, rose, orange blossom, jasmine, ylang-ylang, cypress, patchouli, and oakmoss. It frequently is combined with musk, amber, tea, cumin, and spices such as cinnamon, clary sage, coriander, fennel, pepper, and clove. It complements and balances frankincense and myrrh especially well. Like vetiver and amber, it is used primarily as a base note for perfumes in the Oriental, Woody, Fougère, and Chypre families. It lacks the sharpness of rosewood, cedarwood, and vetiver, and to some noses it is perceived as animalic. At higher concentrations, sandalwood can overpower other components of a composition, but at lower levels it adds softness, fullness, and roundness, as well as acting as a fixative for more volatile head note ingredients, enhancing their longevity.
Initially during the Georgian era of perfumery (ca. 1714-1835), sandalwood was considered to be a masculine scent, but in 1796 the perfumer James Floris developed Staphanotis, a feminine fragrance that blended base notes of sandalwood and musk with orange blossom, staphanotis, and lily of the valley. Subsequently sandalwood has become much more popular in feminine perfumes, used in the base of almost half of them produced since that time.
The name comes from the Sanskrit chandanam (also meaning 'soothing') or sandanam in Tamil. Sandalwood is a medium-sized parasitic evergreen tree (getting nutrients from other trees in its early stages) with slender drooping branches and brown or red bark. The leaves are 3-4 cm long and elliptic, and the small unscented flowers are numerous and pale straw to brownish-purple. The tree produces fruit, and birds disperse its seeds. It grows relatively slowly and can live up to 100 years. The wood is hard and fine-grained, with the sapwood pale green or white and odorless and the heartwood yellowish-brown and strongly scented. The concentration of fragrant oil increases with the tree's age, and unlike many other aromatic woods, it retains its fragrance for decades if stored properly.
Indian sandalwood (Santalum album, sometimes called 'East Indian sandalwood' since colonial times) is thought to be indigenous to southern India and East Timor and introduced to Nepal, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, China, Australia, Hawaii, and other Pacific islands. It belongs to the family of woods that includes rosewood, cedar, and cinnamon tree. Other Santalum species are native to many other regions. The highest quality tree has been Mysore white sandalwood from southern India and Tamil Nadu, now reduced almost to extinction by overharvesting. At one time 70-90% of the world's sandalwood oil production was in India, but the majority now comes from Australia. All sandalwood trees in India, Pakistan, and Nepal now are government-owned, but despite some measures of government protection, illegal logging and trading continue on a large scale (partly due to law enforcement corruption), as does associated clandestine dilution, which makes the oil less desirable.
Native Australian sandalwood (S. spicatum), a different species with a sharper, more resinous, and earthy but still quite pleasant odor, has replaced S. album for most perfumery. Production of Australian oil peaked in 2009 and has continued at significant levels. However, with increasing use of synthetic sandalwood substitutes in perfumery and personal care products, a growing proportion of Australia's natural oil production has been diverted to the chewing tobacco industry.
Overall, there are at least 25 species in the genus Santalum. New Caledonian sandalwood (S. austrocaledonicum), growing on that archipelago and on Vanuatu, produces a very high-quality oil that is quite similar to the Indian oil. Species grown in Hawaii also have been of high quality and were actively exploited in the late 18th and early 19th centuries until the tree supply finally dwindled. Others that have been used intermittently include red sandalwood, false sandalwood, camwood, and bastard sandalwood. Typically they lose their aroma more quickly than the Indian or Australian species. African sandalwood and the so-called 'American sandalwood' or sea torchwood have nothing in common botanically with S. album, and their oils are chemically quite different; but they are several times cheaper than Santalum species, and although their oils differ considerably in smell for most people, they are similar enough to have been used, sometimes surreptitiously, in products called 'sandalwood,' especially niche products.
Sandalwood essential oil is most often obtained from the wood through steam distillation. It can also be extracted less efficiently through water distillation, solvent extraction, and vacuum co-distillation. Because it can regenerate from the stump, the tree was cut down for harvesting in the past, but now it more often is completely uprooted during the rainy season. Consequently the oil can be distilled from all the wood, including the trunk, branches, and roots, in order maximize profit. The wood is ground to powder and soaked in water for about 48 hours before distillation. The four-step steam-distillation process (boiling, steaming, condensation, and separation) takes 18-36 hours to complete, longer than nearly all other essential oils.
In the past, only trees older than 40-80 years and at full maturity, with the highest concentration of fragrance in the heartwood, were used for oil, but today the average age of trees commercially harvested is 8-16 years (or a minimum of 15 years in Australia). The pale gold-brown, moderately viscous oil retains fragrance for a long time when stored. The source of the fragrance is santalol, in its alpha and beta isomers. Australian sandalwood oil contains 35-40% santalol, while Indian sandalwood has had 70-90%, with the superior Mysore type having a minimum of 90%. Eugenols provide a minor additional 'smoke-dried' aspect, and carbonyl compounds add flowery undertones. The overall sandalwood oil composition depends on the species, region grown, soil location, age of tree, and possibly the season of harvest and extraction process, and thus there can be significant variability.
The S. album species population is now recognized as 'vulnerable,' and since 2004 Indian sandalwood has been listed on the IUCN Red List. Other than the oil produced by its own governmental growers, India has banned extraction of oil and export of sandalwood materials. Efforts are underway internationally to save the trees from extinction and regenerate S. album production. In addition to the subsidized government farming in the Indian state of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, Indian sandalwood, including the Mysore type, now is grown on large plantations in western Australia alongside the indigenous Australian variety. With newer techniques of irrigation and fertilization, tree growth has been boosted so that a 15-year-old tree has the same oil levels as a 30-year-old tree did in the past. Australian producers in Kununurra are increasingly planting Indian trees, but whether establishment and growth of new plantations there can significantly restore the groves as a source of oil remains to be seen.
With decreasing stocks of Mysore and other Indian sandalwood, perfumers have had to reformulate their perfume products, some of which - especially the most renowned - were purported at one time to contain up to 40% natural sandalwood. Scientists have tried unsuccessfully for decades to develop protocols for the commercial synthesis of organic sandalwood oil, but efforts continue with new developments in biotechnology that raise hopes for the future. Companies also have been trying to find synthetic substitutes that imitate the chemical structure and scent of the natural oil. The first substitute molecule was discovered in Germany in 1947, with subsequent further evolution, including development of Santalidol in the Soviet Union. Santalidol, a mixture of several substances with similar structures, was mass produced commercially beginning in 1956. Since then, variations of it having somewhat differing ingredient ratios and smells have been marketed, with Sandalore and Bagdanol being the most common by the 1970s, as use of natural sandalwood oil began to decrease. The alternative probably best-known historically is Sandenol, whose chemical structure is most closely related to the santalol isomers and which was said to have an aroma quite similar to that of the natural oil. Among other widely used alternates are Javanol, Polysantol, Firsantol, Levosandol, Ebanol, Fleursandol, and HomoPolysantol. Javanol, Ebanol, Sandela, Santaliff, and Santalore have been claimed by their users to be the strongest and most true to natural sandalwood, but there is disagreement, and none can exactly match the complexity and richness of true sandalwood. Due to its unique technical properties (lasting power, strength, diffusivity, and ability to mix well with other compounds), Javanol from Givaudan has become the favorite among modern perfumers. A major advantage of synthetic oils over the natural form is that they provide consistency of composition and quality from batch to batch.
The documented use of sandalwood goes back about 4000 years to India, Egypt, Greece, and Rome. Ramayana, an Indian epic poem written in the 4th century BCE, first mentions the ancient burning of sandalwood slivers as incense. When sandalwood was abundant, especially in the 15th to 17th centuries, many temples and other structures were built with its timber, as were sculptures and furniture. In Egypt, it was an embalming ingredient and was believed to release the souls of the dead in reincarnation. It has been highly prized for wood carving, including creation of religious icons, rosaries, fans, sewing boxes, and toys, and this still is done using wood from trimmings and immature trees killed by disease. Sandalwood has been used in solid perfumes for centuries by Arab perfumers. In the 18th century it became a popular ingredient in European perfumes and cosmetics, and it also was used then to scent Spanish Córdoban leather.
Sandalwood oil and wood have been a part of many different religious practices, including Hinduism, Sufism, Jainism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism, Shamanism, and Taoism. The wood of the tree is powdered and made into a paste that is integral to many rituals and ceremonies, and it is used to decorate icons and altars. The paste and oil (applied to the forehead, neck, or chest) and the smoke from burning sandalwood incense have been thought to calm and focus the mind for meditation and prayer. Indian paintings show images of snakes curling around sandalwood trees, representing legends in which the tree is said to release such a beautiful scent that serpents are charmed by it.
The essential oil is used in aromatherapy for its stress-reducing, calming, and soothing properties, and it is considered to be an aphrodisiac, especially in massage oil. It is a natural astringent, firming and toning the skin. It has been used for centuries in Chinese and Indian Ayurvedic medicine as an antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, analgesic, diuretic, emollient, expectorant, hypotensive, and sedative. Sandalwood is claimed to be beneficial for rheumatism and gout, and it may have benefits for treating anxiety and depression and even cancers. Synthetic sandalwoods have been shown to stimulate skin OR2AT3 receptors, which may promote wound healing and scalp hair growth.
Aboriginal Australians eat sandalwood seed kernels, nuts, and fruit, and early European settlers there used the fruit in making jams, chutneys, and pies. Modern chefs have experimented with the nut as a substitute for macadamia, almond, and hazelnut, especially in Southeast Asian-style cuisine. The oil and some of the synthetic sandalwood analogues are used as a flavoring agent in candy, ice cream, baked goods, puddings, gelatin, and beverages. Due to its preservative and antiseptic properties, sandalwood often is included in soaps, other beauty products, candles, air fresheners, and industrial products. Finally, because of its low fluorescence and optimal refractive index, sandalwood oil has been used as an immersion oil for microscopy. There has not been extensive research conducted on the safety of sandalwood oil, but because there have not been any significant adverse effects documented in the scientific literature, it generally is considered quite safe and continues to be used commonly.
Many sandalwood perfume products have 'sandalwood,' 'sandalo,' or 'santal' in their names and can be identified easily. Other scents without those words in their names but with significant a sandalwood presence and usually designated as masculine include the following:
Aesop Marrakech Intense
Amouage Interlude, Epic, Memoir
Aramis Havana
Balenciaga Eau
Blanche Byredo Blanche
Burberry Mr. Burberry
By Killian Sacred Wood
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria, Contradiction
Cartier Declaration d'un Soir
Caswell Massey Tricorn
Chanel Egoiste, Bleu
Christian Dior Leather Oud, Patchouli Imperial, Vetiver
Comme des Garcons Concrete, Wonderwood
Creed Himalaya, Bois du Portugal, Silver Mountain Water
D.R. Harris Marlborough
Davidoff Cool Water
Dior Fahrenheit
Diptyque Tam Dao
Dolce & Gabbana D&G
Donna Karan Chaos
Dunhill 51.3 N
Fabi per Lui
Fragonard Zizanie
Fulton & Roark Shackleford
Gucci Envy, Rush
Guerlain Habit Rouge, l'Eau Boisee, l'Instant, Heritage, Arsene Lupin Voyou
Guy Laroche Drakka Noir
Hermes Bel Ami
Histoire de Parfums 1725 Casanova
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jill Sander Man III
L'Acqua di Fiori Tennis
Laurent Mazzone Black Oud
Le Cherche Midi
Lush Smuggler's Soul
Maître Parfumeur et Gantier Grain de Plaisir
Maurer & Wirtz Marrakech Tale
Oscar de la Renta pour Lui
Pal Zileri Sartoriale
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet
Prada l'Homme
Profumum Roma Olibanum
Proraso Red
Revillon pour Homme
Rochas Macassar
Rosendo Mateu No. 1, No. 6
Scorpio Gold
Shaik Gold
Stetson Preferred Stock, Caliber
Tom Ford Exxtreme, Noir
Tom Frank Black 1
Valentino Noir Absolu
Van Heusen
Versace Black Jeans
Xerjoff Richwood
Yves St. Laurent Jazz
Zadig & Voltaire This is Him
Zara For Him 2018, No Night
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Evergreen Conifer Fragrances: Pine, Fir, and Spruce
An evergreen is a plant that has foliage which remains green and functional through more than one growing season, contrasting with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many types, including most species of conifers, live oak, holly, rainforest trees, and clubmosses. Most tropical rainforest plants and warm temperate climate plants are evergreens. In cooler temperate climates, conifer trees predominate because they can tolerate more severe cold temperatures.
Conifer scent oils can be made from the leaves (needles) of the trees, in which case they function mainly as top notes, or from other parts of the tree, in which case they can be top to heart notes. Synthetic evergreen notes also sometimes act in a fragrance's base. Evergreen scents are classified in the woods and mosses fragrance family. When their notes are listed among the ingredients of a perfume product, it is often not made clear whether they are from the leaves, from the wood, or with an accord that includes synthetics.
Each part of the trees, including the needles, the resin, the wood, and the bark, has its own distinctive scents. A variety of evergreen scents are used in perfumery, but the major ones are pine, fir, and spruce. Although they also are evergreen conifers, cypress, juniper, and cedar are so ubiquitous that they will not be discussed here. They will have their own separate posts.
The primary source of aroma in evergreens is the terpene chemical group. There are several hundred terpenes found in conifers. These include pinene, which is one of the most abundant and which produces the fresh woodsy aroma that people associate with Christmas trees. Pinene occurs naturally as two isomers, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene. In most trees, the alpha form is the more abundant. Other aromatic terpenes released by conifers include limonene, which provides a citrusy scent; myrcene, which has the smell of thyme; camphene, which gives the aroma of camphor; and phellandrene, which produces a minty smell.
Terpenes can react with some airborne chemicals to form small aerosol particles that act as atmospheric 'seeds' for clouds, forming clouds from water vapor. The resulting cloud cover can have a cooling effect on the forest. The aerosols formed by terpenes have a scattering effect on the wavelengths of sunlight and are responsible for the blue haze that is sometimes visible over pine-covered mountains.
Other non-terpene compounds also play a part in the aroma of conifers, especially that of pines. The major one is bornyl acetate, an ester which provides a fresh, clean tone.
Conifer fragrance oil, composed of combinations of synthetic chemicals, is used more often than natural essential oils to give an evergreen smell to soaps, lotions, candles, linen sprays, potpourri, home scents, and other non-perfume products.
Masculine fragrances with mixed coniferous notes:
Aesop Hwyl
Alkemia Falling Stars at Winter Solstice, Alkemia Mesnee d'Hellequin, Alkemia Woods on a Snowy Evening
American Perfumer Bloodline
Annick Goutal Nuit Etoilee
Areej le Dore Russian Musk
Barrister & Mann Fougere Gothique
Caron Yatagan
Comme des Garcons Hinoki, CdG Incense Zagorsk
Dasein Winter, Dasein Winter Nights
DS & Durga El Cosmico
Evocative Siberian Fir
Heretic Blood Cedar
Imaginary Authors Cape Heartache
Lvnea Ghost Pine
Madhat Fur, Madhat Winter XVI
Matriarch Future's Past, Matriarch Sacre Noir
Olympic Orchids Olympic Rainforest
Serge Lutens Fille en Aiguilles
Slumberhouse Grev, Slumberhouse Norne
Soivohle Twelve Keys
Svensk En
Tiziana Terenzi Ecstasy
Pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus Pinus of the family Pinaceae. The American Conifer Society (ACS) lists 121 species in the genus. The pine family is the largest one within the conifers group, with almost 130 species and 818 named cultivars recognized by the ACS. Pines are native to the northern hemisphere and to a few areas reaching from the tropics to temperate regions of the southern hemisphere. Most regions of the northern hemisphere have some types of native pine species. Pines are found in a large variety of environments, ranging from semi-arid desert to rainforests, from sea level up to 5200m, and from the coldest to the hottest of Earth's environments. In the more southern regions they are restricted mostly to colder mountain regions.
Various pine species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or are cultivated as ornamental plants in parks and gardens. Some of these introduced species have become naturalized, and some species are now considered invasive, threatening the native ecosystems.
Pines grow to a height of 3-80m, with the majority reaching 15-45m. They are long-lived, typically attaining ages of 100-1000 years or more. The branches, needles, and cones grow in a spiral pattern. The new spring shoots point upward at first, later spreading downward. Pines have four types of leaf: seedlings, juvenile leaves, scale leaves, and adult leaves (needles). The needles are green and are bundled in clusters, usually numbering 2-5 per cluster. Each tree produces both male and female cones, with the male cones present only for a short period before shedding pollen and falling off. Each mature female cone has spirally arranged scales, with two seeds per scale.
The modern English word 'pine' derives from Latin pinus, which can be traced to an Indo-European base meaning resin. Before the 19th century, pines often were referred to as firs (from Old Norse fura). In some European languages, Germanic forms of the Old Norse name are still in use for pines, but in modern English the word 'fir' is restricted now for the most part to the Abies.
Pinus is the largest genus of Pinaceae pine family, which first appeared in the Jurassic period and diverged at that time into the pines, firs, spruces, hemlocks, and larches. The evolutionary history of the genus Pinus has been complicated by frequent interspecies breeding and hybridization.
In ancient Egypt, pine resin was used in embalming to prevent early decay. The resin was used by the Greeks to seal ceramic wine vessels and was added to fermenting graps for flavor and possibly for medicinal and spiritual properties. Pine tar has long been used to protect surfaces such as boat hulls. Pine branches, cones, and needles also were used in various ancient ceremonies. In modern times, pine wood has been used often for flooring, building construction, paper, and cheap furniture. Turpentine and pine tar water have been used in veterinary treatments, and people have used the resin externally for infections and inflammation and internally for coughs and respiratory infections, allergies, and urinary tract infections. In aromatherapy, pine is added to baths to boost immunity and relieve insomnia.
Pine essential oil is obtained from the needles, stumps, shoots and twigs, and sometimes even the cones by steam distillation, solvent extraction followed by distillation, or destructive distillation (a chemical process in which the material is heated to a high temperature in the absence of air or in the presence of limited oxygen or other reagents or catalysts). The species used most often for oil is Scotch pine (P. sylvestris). The essential oil is colorless to light amber. It is insoluble in water but dissolves in alcohol. Synthetic pine oil is produced by conversion of natural terpene hydrocarbons into terpene alcohols.
The overall scent of pine is unique. Generally, regardless of species, it is aromatic, resinous, green, and slightly like eucalyptus. It has a crisp, somewhat dry, icy quality, with a barely noticeable touch of menthol, and its undertones are much more herbal than woody. It is complex, bold, spicy, and vital. Among the conifers, it is most similar to spruce. The pine note used in perfumery is not at all a turpentine or cleaning product smell, but rather a gentle green scent. As it dries, it becomes sweeter and almost floral in nature. It is used in fragrances for both genders, but more commonly in masculine ones. Pine oil fragrances can differ considerably, depending upon the species and how the aromatic material was extracted. Pine was a favorite of early Arab perfumers, who liked to use it in various combinations, particularly with frankincense.
While other pine extracts mostly smell similar to each other, ponderosa pine oil uniquely has notes of vanilla and caramel and a distinct anise-like smell. Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) oil gourmand notes at the beginning, reminiscent of bread dough; but it evolves into more pure fresh-cut pine, with just a hint of anise and turpentine. Dwarf mountain pine (P. mugo) has a prominent pine smell, but it also has undertones of dry, woody, smoky sawdust and an unusual note the is similar to that of raw carrots. The oil of ocean or commercial pine (P. pinaster) has a strong woody pine smell, but also an odd weedy note. Swiss stone pine (P. cembra) has a resinous, green, woody, aromatic scent that brings to mind Christmas trees, and it adds some strong floral notes as it develops.
Pine scent, mainly synthetic, is also used in cleaning products, disinfectants, sanitizers, insecticides, and air fresheners, as well as in bath products. Pine oil is also used as a lubricant in expensive clockwork instruments, as a solvent, and in chemical manufacturing and various other industrial processes.
Turpentine is a fluid obtained by steam distillation of tree resin, mainly from pines. It is not used directly in perfumery but is employed as a solvent and a source of organic compounds (including synthetic terpenes used in scented products). In the past it was used as a medicinal elixir, a lamp fuel to replace whale oil, and an additive to gasoline to cover the smell.
Masculine fragrances with pine notes:
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana (Pine needle)
Adidas Active Bodies, Adidas Adventure
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca
Ajmal Zeal
Amouage Lyric Man
Antonio Puig Quorum
Aramis Devin, Aramis Mustang Blue
Avon Destination Wilderness
Azzaro Chrome
Black Phoenix The Jersey Devil
Bottega Veneta Essence Aromatique, BV Extreme, BV pour Homme
Burdin En Garde!
Calvin Klein Obsession
Caron Yatagan
Cerruti 1881 (var.)
Christian Dior Eden-Roc
Courreges Niagara
Creed Epicea, Creed Windsor
Cuba Paris Wild Heart
DS & Durga Amber Kiso, DS&D Freetrapper
Ermenegildo Zegna Roman Wood
Galimard Uralskaya Taiga
Givenchy Pi Leather Jacket
Guy Laroche Horizon
Halston 1-12, Halston 101
Histoires de parfums 1828
Hugo Boss Hugo Man
Jacques Bogart One Man Show
Jil Sander Man III
John Varvatos Artisan Blu, JV Star USA
Kenzo Homme Fresh
Krizia Uomo
Lacoste L.12.12. Blanc, Lacoste Red
Lancome Balafre
La Rive Athletic Man
Le Prince Jardinier Arboretum
Memo Russian Leather (Pine needle)
Molton Brown Jubilant Pine & Patchouli, MB Russian Leather
Nina Ricci Phileas
Oleg Cassini Reporter
Oriflame Excite Force
Paco Rabanne 1 Million
Paris Elysees, Handsome, PE Vodka Extreme
Penhaligon's Blenheim Bouquet
Pino Silvestre Original
Profumum Roma Arso
Ralph Lauren Polo (Green), RL Polo Crest, RL Romance
Rituals Maharaja d'Or
Rochas Macassar
Sergio Soldano Black
Tommy Hilfiger T
Ulric de Varens UDV Black
Victor Silvestre
Visconti di Modrone Acqua di Selva
Weil Kipling
Xerjoff Accento Overdose
Yardley Gentleman Elite
Fir
Firs (Abies) are a genus of around 50 species in the same Pinaceae family. They are found on mountains throughout much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The genus is most closely related to cedar (Cedrus).
They are large trees, reaching heights of 10-80m. Firs can be distinguished from other conifers by the way in which their needles are attached singly to the branches with a base resembling a suction cup and by their cones, which (like those of true cedars) generally stand upright on the branches like candles and disintegrate at maturity to release winged seeds. Some of the largest fir cones, such as those of the Douglas fir, hang downward.
The genus name Abies is derived from the Latin for 'to rise,' referring to the height of the species. The common English name comes from the Old Norse fyri or Old Danish fyr.
Generally, fir essential oil has a sweet, balsamic, aromatic, green, spicy fragrance. Like pine scents, fir aromas are quite diverse and depend on the species and extraction process.
Canadian balsam fir (A. balsamea) produces an oil with a typical fresh, ethereal, cool, evergreen scent, sharp and resinous but somewhat sweeter and lighter than other conifers. As it dries down it becomes even sweeter and woodier, but that phase disappears quickly. Balsam fir absolute, thicker and stickier, has a much heavier, richer, sweeter scent, with better longevity and persistent sillage. It conveys the smell of both the cut wood and the needles; as it dries down it changes from the moist scent of a freshly cut tree to the smell of newly cut lumber, with a faint smoky note and nuances of clover, hay, and dried fruits.
Silver (Swedish) fir (A. alba), common in Europe, yields an essential oil with fresh evergreen notes but also some camphorous, warmer, more aromatic ones. It has a green, vegetable-like note that Balsam fir lacks and has better longevity. As it evolves, the scent becomes lighter, thinner, and more like fresh needles. Silver fir oil's note lasts so long that it can be used as a heart note. An oil made from the cones of the silver fir, called templin, starts out with a sharp, varnish-like smell but then mellows into a typical conifer aroma. It is a bit deeper, darker, and woodier than the needle oil, but it has less longevity. The cedar tree also is in the Silver fir family, and its oil is used frequently in perfumery.
The oil of Siberian fir (A. sibirica), which grows on the mountains and taiga of Eastern Europe, starts out camphorous, woody, spicy, and sweet, with hints of tarragon, cinnamon, and raw bread dough; but as it dries down, it becomes fresher, almost like spearmint, but with the typical woody-balsamic evergreen tone. Lasting only an hour, it makes a nice top note.
Gas chromatography shows 17 chemical components of fir needle oil contributing to its fragrance. The one in the highest proportion is bornyl acetate at 34%. Other major ones include alpha- and beta-pinene, camphene, limonene, and beta-phellandrene.
Masculine fragrances with fir notes:
Abercrombie & Fitch Fierce
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana
Alfred Dunhill Edition
Aramis Havana, Aramis JHL, Aramis Mustang
Arquiste Aleksandr
Art of Shaving Sandalwood
l'Artisan Fou d'Absinthe (Canadian balsam)
Avon Friktion (Canadian balsam)
Ayala Moriel Rainforest
Bottega Veneta Illusione, BV pour Homme
Cacharel
Calvin Klein Dark Obsession
Cartier Pasha de Cartier
Christian Dior Jules
Christian Lacroix Bazar
Clive Christian Chasing the Dragon, CC L, CC Matsukita
Coty Aspen
Creed Erolfa
Davidoff Cool Water Deep, Davidoff Run Wild
Decotto di Neve Gravita Dentro di Noi
Floris Elite
Fragonard Vetyver
Giorgio Armani Acqu di Gio Profondo Lights
Gucci Nobile
Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir
Hermes Eau des Merveilles LE
Hugo Boss Hugo (var.), HB Just Different, HB Man on the Go
Jacques Battini de l'Ambre Shady (Canadian balsam)
Jean Luc Amsler Prive Homme (Canadian balsam)
Jean Patou
John Varvatos Vintage, JV 10th Anniversary (Canadian balsam)
Joop! Go
Keith Urban Phoenix (Canadian balsam)
Korres Blue Sage Lime Fir Wood
Lacoste Eau de Sport
Liz Claiborne Mambo Mix
Loewe Esencia 40 Aniversario
Marly Percival
Memo Sicilian Leather
M. Micallef Imperial Santal, MM Spicy
Michael Jordan
Michael Kors Michael
Oscar de la Renta Oscar
Paul Sebastian Silver
Penhaligon's Agarbathi, Penhaligon's Luna
Pino Silvestre Acqua di Pino Fougere
Reflexion Foret du Nord
Rochas Globe
Satori Musk Blue (Canadian balsam)
Tabac (Original)
Ted Baker M
Thierry Mugler A*Men Ultimate
Tru 1879
Thierry Mugler A*Men Ultimate
Versace Blue Jeans, Versace Green Jeans
Victorio & Lucchino No 1 Wild Vitality
Zepter Swisso Logical Philip (Canadian balsam)
Spruce
Spruce is a tree of the genus Picea, consisting of around 35 species of evergreens in the family Pinaceae. It is found in the Northern Hemisphere in temperate and boreal (taiga) regions. The trees are large, around 20-60m in height when mature, with whorled branches and a conical form.
Spruce can be distinguished from other conifers by their needles, which are four-sided and attached singly to small peg-like structures on the branches, and by their cones, which hang downwards after being pollinated and have no protruding bracts (scales).
The etymology of the word 'spruce' is unclear. The Polish phrase 'z Prus' (meaning 'from Prussia') sounds to English ears like spruce, and this seems to have been a generic term for commodities brought to England from that region. It is also argued that the word is derived from the Old French term Pruce, meaning Prussia.
The essential oil is steam-distilled from the needles and twigs of fir trees, primarily Canadian spruce (P. mariana). It has a fresh, green, woody scent with a balsamic top note and a sweet and fruity undertone reminiscent of fresh natural pinewood. It has a contrasting somewhat 'oily' drydown. The Canadian spruce scent blends particularly well with cedarwood, lavandin, and rosemary.
One other variant, Black spruce (P. mariana), has a darker-smelling, fir-like coniferous smell and is used less often in perfumery.
The scent is prevalent in air fresheners and other aerosol sprays with a 'forest' type of smell.
Masculine fragrances with spruce notes:
Al Haramain Favorite
Atkinsons Duke
Avon Elite Gentleman
Bonny Doon Farm Uplands
Davidoff Cool Water Ice Fresh
John Varvatos Star USA
Kenzo l'Eau 2
La Martina Sueno Hombre
Molyneux Captain
Perlier Ginepro della Corsica
Rasasi Egra
Ted Lapidus
Tommy Hilfiger Tommy 10
An evergreen is a plant that has foliage which remains green and functional through more than one growing season, contrasting with deciduous plants, which completely lose their foliage during the winter or dry season. There are many types, including most species of conifers, live oak, holly, rainforest trees, and clubmosses. Most tropical rainforest plants and warm temperate climate plants are evergreens. In cooler temperate climates, conifer trees predominate because they can tolerate more severe cold temperatures.
Conifer scent oils can be made from the leaves (needles) of the trees, in which case they function mainly as top notes, or from other parts of the tree, in which case they can be top to heart notes. Synthetic evergreen notes also sometimes act in a fragrance's base. Evergreen scents are classified in the woods and mosses fragrance family. When their notes are listed among the ingredients of a perfume product, it is often not made clear whether they are from the leaves, from the wood, or with an accord that includes synthetics.
Each part of the trees, including the needles, the resin, the wood, and the bark, has its own distinctive scents. A variety of evergreen scents are used in perfumery, but the major ones are pine, fir, and spruce. Although they also are evergreen conifers, cypress, juniper, and cedar are so ubiquitous that they will not be discussed here. They will have their own separate posts.
The primary source of aroma in evergreens is the terpene chemical group. There are several hundred terpenes found in conifers. These include pinene, which is one of the most abundant and which produces the fresh woodsy aroma that people associate with Christmas trees. Pinene occurs naturally as two isomers, alpha-pinene and beta-pinene. In most trees, the alpha form is the more abundant. Other aromatic terpenes released by conifers include limonene, which provides a citrusy scent; myrcene, which has the smell of thyme; camphene, which gives the aroma of camphor; and phellandrene, which produces a minty smell.
Terpenes can react with some airborne chemicals to form small aerosol particles that act as atmospheric 'seeds' for clouds, forming clouds from water vapor. The resulting cloud cover can have a cooling effect on the forest. The aerosols formed by terpenes have a scattering effect on the wavelengths of sunlight and are responsible for the blue haze that is sometimes visible over pine-covered mountains.
Other non-terpene compounds also play a part in the aroma of conifers, especially that of pines. The major one is bornyl acetate, an ester which provides a fresh, clean tone.
Conifer fragrance oil, composed of combinations of synthetic chemicals, is used more often than natural essential oils to give an evergreen smell to soaps, lotions, candles, linen sprays, potpourri, home scents, and other non-perfume products.
Masculine fragrances with mixed coniferous notes:
Aesop Hwyl
Alkemia Falling Stars at Winter Solstice, Alkemia Mesnee d'Hellequin, Alkemia Woods on a Snowy Evening
American Perfumer Bloodline
Annick Goutal Nuit Etoilee
Areej le Dore Russian Musk
Barrister & Mann Fougere Gothique
Caron Yatagan
Comme des Garcons Hinoki, CdG Incense Zagorsk
Dasein Winter, Dasein Winter Nights
DS & Durga El Cosmico
Evocative Siberian Fir
Heretic Blood Cedar
Imaginary Authors Cape Heartache
Lvnea Ghost Pine
Madhat Fur, Madhat Winter XVI
Matriarch Future's Past, Matriarch Sacre Noir
Olympic Orchids Olympic Rainforest
Serge Lutens Fille en Aiguilles
Slumberhouse Grev, Slumberhouse Norne
Soivohle Twelve Keys
Svensk En
Tiziana Terenzi Ecstasy
Pine
A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus Pinus of the family Pinaceae. The American Conifer Society (ACS) lists 121 species in the genus. The pine family is the largest one within the conifers group, with almost 130 species and 818 named cultivars recognized by the ACS. Pines are native to the northern hemisphere and to a few areas reaching from the tropics to temperate regions of the southern hemisphere. Most regions of the northern hemisphere have some types of native pine species. Pines are found in a large variety of environments, ranging from semi-arid desert to rainforests, from sea level up to 5200m, and from the coldest to the hottest of Earth's environments. In the more southern regions they are restricted mostly to colder mountain regions.
Various pine species have been introduced to temperate and subtropical regions of both hemispheres, where they are grown as timber or are cultivated as ornamental plants in parks and gardens. Some of these introduced species have become naturalized, and some species are now considered invasive, threatening the native ecosystems.
Pines grow to a height of 3-80m, with the majority reaching 15-45m. They are long-lived, typically attaining ages of 100-1000 years or more. The branches, needles, and cones grow in a spiral pattern. The new spring shoots point upward at first, later spreading downward. Pines have four types of leaf: seedlings, juvenile leaves, scale leaves, and adult leaves (needles). The needles are green and are bundled in clusters, usually numbering 2-5 per cluster. Each tree produces both male and female cones, with the male cones present only for a short period before shedding pollen and falling off. Each mature female cone has spirally arranged scales, with two seeds per scale.
The modern English word 'pine' derives from Latin pinus, which can be traced to an Indo-European base meaning resin. Before the 19th century, pines often were referred to as firs (from Old Norse fura). In some European languages, Germanic forms of the Old Norse name are still in use for pines, but in modern English the word 'fir' is restricted now for the most part to the Abies.
Pinus is the largest genus of Pinaceae pine family, which first appeared in the Jurassic period and diverged at that time into the pines, firs, spruces, hemlocks, and larches. The evolutionary history of the genus Pinus has been complicated by frequent interspecies breeding and hybridization.
In ancient Egypt, pine resin was used in embalming to prevent early decay. The resin was used by the Greeks to seal ceramic wine vessels and was added to fermenting graps for flavor and possibly for medicinal and spiritual properties. Pine tar has long been used to protect surfaces such as boat hulls. Pine branches, cones, and needles also were used in various ancient ceremonies. In modern times, pine wood has been used often for flooring, building construction, paper, and cheap furniture. Turpentine and pine tar water have been used in veterinary treatments, and people have used the resin externally for infections and inflammation and internally for coughs and respiratory infections, allergies, and urinary tract infections. In aromatherapy, pine is added to baths to boost immunity and relieve insomnia.
Pine essential oil is obtained from the needles, stumps, shoots and twigs, and sometimes even the cones by steam distillation, solvent extraction followed by distillation, or destructive distillation (a chemical process in which the material is heated to a high temperature in the absence of air or in the presence of limited oxygen or other reagents or catalysts). The species used most often for oil is Scotch pine (P. sylvestris). The essential oil is colorless to light amber. It is insoluble in water but dissolves in alcohol. Synthetic pine oil is produced by conversion of natural terpene hydrocarbons into terpene alcohols.
The overall scent of pine is unique. Generally, regardless of species, it is aromatic, resinous, green, and slightly like eucalyptus. It has a crisp, somewhat dry, icy quality, with a barely noticeable touch of menthol, and its undertones are much more herbal than woody. It is complex, bold, spicy, and vital. Among the conifers, it is most similar to spruce. The pine note used in perfumery is not at all a turpentine or cleaning product smell, but rather a gentle green scent. As it dries, it becomes sweeter and almost floral in nature. It is used in fragrances for both genders, but more commonly in masculine ones. Pine oil fragrances can differ considerably, depending upon the species and how the aromatic material was extracted. Pine was a favorite of early Arab perfumers, who liked to use it in various combinations, particularly with frankincense.
While other pine extracts mostly smell similar to each other, ponderosa pine oil uniquely has notes of vanilla and caramel and a distinct anise-like smell. Scotch pine (P. sylvestris) oil gourmand notes at the beginning, reminiscent of bread dough; but it evolves into more pure fresh-cut pine, with just a hint of anise and turpentine. Dwarf mountain pine (P. mugo) has a prominent pine smell, but it also has undertones of dry, woody, smoky sawdust and an unusual note the is similar to that of raw carrots. The oil of ocean or commercial pine (P. pinaster) has a strong woody pine smell, but also an odd weedy note. Swiss stone pine (P. cembra) has a resinous, green, woody, aromatic scent that brings to mind Christmas trees, and it adds some strong floral notes as it develops.
Pine scent, mainly synthetic, is also used in cleaning products, disinfectants, sanitizers, insecticides, and air fresheners, as well as in bath products. Pine oil is also used as a lubricant in expensive clockwork instruments, as a solvent, and in chemical manufacturing and various other industrial processes.
Turpentine is a fluid obtained by steam distillation of tree resin, mainly from pines. It is not used directly in perfumery but is employed as a solvent and a source of organic compounds (including synthetic terpenes used in scented products). In the past it was used as a medicinal elixir, a lamp fuel to replace whale oil, and an additive to gasoline to cover the smell.
Masculine fragrances with pine notes:
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana (Pine needle)
Adidas Active Bodies, Adidas Adventure
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca
Ajmal Zeal
Amouage Lyric Man
Antonio Puig Quorum
Aramis Devin, Aramis Mustang Blue
Avon Destination Wilderness
Azzaro Chrome
Black Phoenix The Jersey Devil
Bottega Veneta Essence Aromatique, BV Extreme, BV pour Homme
Burdin En Garde!
Calvin Klein Obsession
Caron Yatagan
Cerruti 1881 (var.)
Christian Dior Eden-Roc
Courreges Niagara
Creed Epicea, Creed Windsor
Cuba Paris Wild Heart
DS & Durga Amber Kiso, DS&D Freetrapper
Ermenegildo Zegna Roman Wood
Galimard Uralskaya Taiga
Givenchy Pi Leather Jacket
Guy Laroche Horizon
Halston 1-12, Halston 101
Histoires de parfums 1828
Hugo Boss Hugo Man
Jacques Bogart One Man Show
Jil Sander Man III
John Varvatos Artisan Blu, JV Star USA
Kenzo Homme Fresh
Krizia Uomo
Lacoste L.12.12. Blanc, Lacoste Red
Lancome Balafre
La Rive Athletic Man
Le Prince Jardinier Arboretum
Memo Russian Leather (Pine needle)
Molton Brown Jubilant Pine & Patchouli, MB Russian Leather
Nina Ricci Phileas
Oleg Cassini Reporter
Oriflame Excite Force
Paco Rabanne 1 Million
Paris Elysees, Handsome, PE Vodka Extreme
Penhaligon's Blenheim Bouquet
Pino Silvestre Original
Profumum Roma Arso
Ralph Lauren Polo (Green), RL Polo Crest, RL Romance
Rituals Maharaja d'Or
Rochas Macassar
Sergio Soldano Black
Tommy Hilfiger T
Ulric de Varens UDV Black
Victor Silvestre
Visconti di Modrone Acqua di Selva
Weil Kipling
Xerjoff Accento Overdose
Yardley Gentleman Elite
Fir
Firs (Abies) are a genus of around 50 species in the same Pinaceae family. They are found on mountains throughout much of North and Central America, Europe, Asia, and North Africa. The genus is most closely related to cedar (Cedrus).
They are large trees, reaching heights of 10-80m. Firs can be distinguished from other conifers by the way in which their needles are attached singly to the branches with a base resembling a suction cup and by their cones, which (like those of true cedars) generally stand upright on the branches like candles and disintegrate at maturity to release winged seeds. Some of the largest fir cones, such as those of the Douglas fir, hang downward.
The genus name Abies is derived from the Latin for 'to rise,' referring to the height of the species. The common English name comes from the Old Norse fyri or Old Danish fyr.
Generally, fir essential oil has a sweet, balsamic, aromatic, green, spicy fragrance. Like pine scents, fir aromas are quite diverse and depend on the species and extraction process.
Canadian balsam fir (A. balsamea) produces an oil with a typical fresh, ethereal, cool, evergreen scent, sharp and resinous but somewhat sweeter and lighter than other conifers. As it dries down it becomes even sweeter and woodier, but that phase disappears quickly. Balsam fir absolute, thicker and stickier, has a much heavier, richer, sweeter scent, with better longevity and persistent sillage. It conveys the smell of both the cut wood and the needles; as it dries down it changes from the moist scent of a freshly cut tree to the smell of newly cut lumber, with a faint smoky note and nuances of clover, hay, and dried fruits.
Silver (Swedish) fir (A. alba), common in Europe, yields an essential oil with fresh evergreen notes but also some camphorous, warmer, more aromatic ones. It has a green, vegetable-like note that Balsam fir lacks and has better longevity. As it evolves, the scent becomes lighter, thinner, and more like fresh needles. Silver fir oil's note lasts so long that it can be used as a heart note. An oil made from the cones of the silver fir, called templin, starts out with a sharp, varnish-like smell but then mellows into a typical conifer aroma. It is a bit deeper, darker, and woodier than the needle oil, but it has less longevity. The cedar tree also is in the Silver fir family, and its oil is used frequently in perfumery.
The oil of Siberian fir (A. sibirica), which grows on the mountains and taiga of Eastern Europe, starts out camphorous, woody, spicy, and sweet, with hints of tarragon, cinnamon, and raw bread dough; but as it dries down, it becomes fresher, almost like spearmint, but with the typical woody-balsamic evergreen tone. Lasting only an hour, it makes a nice top note.
Gas chromatography shows 17 chemical components of fir needle oil contributing to its fragrance. The one in the highest proportion is bornyl acetate at 34%. Other major ones include alpha- and beta-pinene, camphene, limonene, and beta-phellandrene.
Masculine fragrances with fir notes:
Abercrombie & Fitch Fierce
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Cipresso di Toscana
Alfred Dunhill Edition
Aramis Havana, Aramis JHL, Aramis Mustang
Arquiste Aleksandr
Art of Shaving Sandalwood
l'Artisan Fou d'Absinthe (Canadian balsam)
Avon Friktion (Canadian balsam)
Ayala Moriel Rainforest
Bottega Veneta Illusione, BV pour Homme
Cacharel
Calvin Klein Dark Obsession
Cartier Pasha de Cartier
Christian Dior Jules
Christian Lacroix Bazar
Clive Christian Chasing the Dragon, CC L, CC Matsukita
Coty Aspen
Creed Erolfa
Davidoff Cool Water Deep, Davidoff Run Wild
Decotto di Neve Gravita Dentro di Noi
Floris Elite
Fragonard Vetyver
Giorgio Armani Acqu di Gio Profondo Lights
Gucci Nobile
Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir
Hermes Eau des Merveilles LE
Hugo Boss Hugo (var.), HB Just Different, HB Man on the Go
Jacques Battini de l'Ambre Shady (Canadian balsam)
Jean Luc Amsler Prive Homme (Canadian balsam)
Jean Patou
John Varvatos Vintage, JV 10th Anniversary (Canadian balsam)
Joop! Go
Keith Urban Phoenix (Canadian balsam)
Korres Blue Sage Lime Fir Wood
Lacoste Eau de Sport
Liz Claiborne Mambo Mix
Loewe Esencia 40 Aniversario
Marly Percival
Memo Sicilian Leather
M. Micallef Imperial Santal, MM Spicy
Michael Jordan
Michael Kors Michael
Oscar de la Renta Oscar
Paul Sebastian Silver
Penhaligon's Agarbathi, Penhaligon's Luna
Pino Silvestre Acqua di Pino Fougere
Reflexion Foret du Nord
Rochas Globe
Satori Musk Blue (Canadian balsam)
Tabac (Original)
Ted Baker M
Thierry Mugler A*Men Ultimate
Tru 1879
Thierry Mugler A*Men Ultimate
Versace Blue Jeans, Versace Green Jeans
Victorio & Lucchino No 1 Wild Vitality
Zepter Swisso Logical Philip (Canadian balsam)
Spruce
Spruce is a tree of the genus Picea, consisting of around 35 species of evergreens in the family Pinaceae. It is found in the Northern Hemisphere in temperate and boreal (taiga) regions. The trees are large, around 20-60m in height when mature, with whorled branches and a conical form.
Spruce can be distinguished from other conifers by their needles, which are four-sided and attached singly to small peg-like structures on the branches, and by their cones, which hang downwards after being pollinated and have no protruding bracts (scales).
The etymology of the word 'spruce' is unclear. The Polish phrase 'z Prus' (meaning 'from Prussia') sounds to English ears like spruce, and this seems to have been a generic term for commodities brought to England from that region. It is also argued that the word is derived from the Old French term Pruce, meaning Prussia.
The essential oil is steam-distilled from the needles and twigs of fir trees, primarily Canadian spruce (P. mariana). It has a fresh, green, woody scent with a balsamic top note and a sweet and fruity undertone reminiscent of fresh natural pinewood. It has a contrasting somewhat 'oily' drydown. The Canadian spruce scent blends particularly well with cedarwood, lavandin, and rosemary.
One other variant, Black spruce (P. mariana), has a darker-smelling, fir-like coniferous smell and is used less often in perfumery.
The scent is prevalent in air fresheners and other aerosol sprays with a 'forest' type of smell.
Masculine fragrances with spruce notes:
Al Haramain Favorite
Atkinsons Duke
Avon Elite Gentleman
Bonny Doon Farm Uplands
Davidoff Cool Water Ice Fresh
John Varvatos Star USA
Kenzo l'Eau 2
La Martina Sueno Hombre
Molyneux Captain
Perlier Ginepro della Corsica
Rasasi Egra
Ted Lapidus
Tommy Hilfiger Tommy 10
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Hay
Hay is a word used commonly for cut dried grass, which most often is used as animal feed for domestic herbivorous animals, especially in the winter, when grazing on pasture or rangeland is not feasible due to weather. It is also used when lush pasture is not available or would be too rich for the health of the animals or when the animals are being kept in a stable or barn.
Many different plants have been used throughout history to feed animals. The first farmers cut wild grasses for their livestock, eventually employing domesticated grasses, mainly alfalfa. Native to Asia, alfalfa spread rapidly to other parts of the world. It was grown in Central and North America by the early 1700s and in California by the mid-1800s. Timothy and clover, both native to Europe, were the plants initially used most often in the US for hay, but alfalfa overtook them in popularity by the end of the 19th century and has remained the major plant for hay.
Plants most commonly used today for hay include mixtures of grasses such as ryegrass, timothy, brome, fescue, Bermuda, and orchard, and legumes, such as alfalfa and clovers. Timothy grass and clover were the plants most commonly used for hay in the United States in the early 20th century. Oats, barley, and wheat plant materials also are sometimes cut green and made into hay for fodder; but more often they are used in the form of straw (a lower nutrition byproduct of the baling of stems and dead leaves), sometimes employed as a source of dietary fiber.
Hay is quite sensitive to weather conditions, especially when it is harvested. Hay harvesting is commonly called 'making hay' or 'haymaking,' which explains the origin of the idiom 'making hay while the sun shines.' Hay that is too wet at cutting may develop rot and mold after being baled. Harvest involves multiple steps. Whether done by hand or with modern mechanized equipment, the grass at the proper stage of maturity must be cut, allowed to dry (preferably in the sun) or 'cure,' raked into long, narrow piles known as windrows, gathered in some form (usually by some type of baling or bundling), and placed into storage as a haystack or in a barn or shed to protect it from moisture and rot. A rainy climate may dictate forced-air curing in a barn. Properly cured hay with 20% or less moisture may be stored for months without spoilage.
With the appearance in the 1960s of large bales, more hay was stored outdoors because the outer surface of the large bale performed a weather-shedding function and the large bales could be stacked efficiently. To completely keep moisture out, outside haystacks or bales can be covered by tarps, and round bales are sometimes wrapped in plastic as part of the baling process.
Until the 18th century, haymaking was a cumbersome task with little output because of the use of crude hand tools. On a good day, a farmer could harvest around one acre of hay. In the past, hay was cut by sickles and scythes by teams of workers, dried in the field, and gathered loose on wagons. Around 1790, hay production was greatly increased due to the introduction of new machinery created during the Industrial Revolution, with the main innovation being the wooden rake. By the early 19th century, haying was done with horse- or oxen-drawn implements such as mowers, allowing the use of large expanses of land.
In 1865, barn hay forks were developed; and in 1875, hay loaders and steam-powered engines were being used. With the invention and evolution of agricultural machinery such as the gasoline tractor and baler from 1905 through the 1930s, most hay production became mechanized.
Hay baling started with the invention of the hay press around 1850. The original machines used a horse-driven screw-press mechanism or a dropped weight to compress the hay. By around 1882, steam-powered baling machines were available, and in 1914 the continuous baler was introduced. The first hay bales weighed about 300 pounds.
Modern balers, developed around 1940, can produce bales in different sizes and shapes. The first ones made bales small enough for one person to lift, tied with wire or twine and usually weighing 70-100 pounds each.
Eventually, to ease labor and increase safety, mechanized loaders and stackers were developed. Later in the 20th century, balers were developed that were capable of producing huge bales weighing up to 3,000 pounds. Round or cylindrical bales are more difficult to handle than square bales but compress the hay more tightly. A wrapper may be used to seal a round bale completely and trigger a fermentation process, which acts as a preservative by preventing mold and rot.
In less developed countries, haystacks are still used. They can provide protection from weather, depending on the surface mass and shape (usually conical or with a ridged top), preserving most of the hay sufficiently to last through the winter. The top of such stacks sometimes is thatched by hand to provide better protection. The top surface of the stack generally is consigned to becoming compost the next summer. Haystacks may be built on top of a foundation, made of wood or brush and laid on the ground to reduce spoilage. They are sometimes covered with a moveable roof supported by four posts, historically called a Dutch roof, hay barrack, or hay cap. In some regions, such as areas of easter Europe, hay is stacked loose, built around a central pole or tree or within an area of three or four poles that add stability to the pile.
Use in Perfumery
Hay absolute or essential oil is obtained by extraction with volatile solvents (absolute) or by steam distillation (oil), with the oil more commonly used in perfumes. The majority of the oil is produced in the south of France.
The absolute is very viscous, with a dark forest green color that appears almost black. Initially it smells somewhat like licorice, with great density and sharpness, but within moments, the sharpness subsides and the aroma transforms into something more like sweet dried prunes. Eventually, over the course of hours, its fragrance becomes the grassy one typical of the essential oil. In some compositions with natural hay, the licorice note resurfaces intermittently. Many modern perfume products use synthetic hay notes, whose chemical structures have been derived through the use of headspace technology and other analytical processes. The main volatile compounds identified have included linalool, linalyl acetate, geraniol, and coumarin, with smaller amounts of others.
In perfume products, hay provides the sweet, green, dense, aromatic fragrance of cut grass, sometimes with the added sweetness of clover. Similar to coumarin, it is rich, pungent, herbaceous, woody, and earthy, described by some as having a dried fig essence and sometimes a slight floral tone. It sometimes has a touch of nuttiness or saltiness. In its drydown, it has a sweet tobacco-like warmth. Hay is reminiscent of barns, horses, summertime grass, carefree moments, freedom, and wide open spaces. It is an archetypal smell, bringing to mind our common ancestral heritage of herding and farming. The aroma is calming, relaxing, and inviting.
The smell of hay extract varies depending upon the type of plant material from which it was derived. Says agricultural extension agent Henry Hibbs, 'There is definite difference in the smell of alfalfa, bermuda, and fescue hay. The most notable is the difference between the legumes and the grasses. It sounds like the description of a wine... The alfalfa is a fuller, richer, and more pungent and slightly tangy-earthy smell, while the other extreme would be well sun-dried Bermuda hay, which has a fresh, clean, sunny smell. Fescues, simply because of the broader leaf and increased time required to dry in a windrow, has a tangier and heavier smell. sometimes seeming a bit musty. Timothy is especially nice because it has the least 'dry hay' smell." Orchard grass and brome, grown more in the West and Midwest, have a distinct aroma as a result of the different soils and humidity there.
The scent is complex and medium in strength, and most often it appears in the base or middle notes. Hay usually is classed in the amber family or the woody group. The hay note appears in a wide variety of fragrance types, but it has been used primarily in fougere, aromatic, and lavender compositions. It blends especially well with citrus, clary sage, ylang-ylang, tea, amber, woods, leather notes, and green notes.
Masculine fragrances with prominent hay notes:
Alfred Dunhill Blend 30
Ayala Moriel Rainforest
Claus Porto Musgo Real Agua de Colonia No 2 Oak Moss
Dolce & Gabbana Intenso
Etienne Aigner Super Fragrance
Faberge Cellini
Hendley Mown
Instituto Espanol Poseidon Impulse
Jean Patou Prive
Ligne St. Barth
Molinard Homme II
Neil Morris Flowers for Men: Gardenia
Nicolai Createur Carre d'As
Oleg Cassini
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Aviron Bayonnais Rugby
Poesie Sir
Rising Phoenix Fougere
Rosine Rose d'Homme
Victorinox Swiss Army 125 Years Your Companion for Life
Weil Gentilhomme
Hay is a word used commonly for cut dried grass, which most often is used as animal feed for domestic herbivorous animals, especially in the winter, when grazing on pasture or rangeland is not feasible due to weather. It is also used when lush pasture is not available or would be too rich for the health of the animals or when the animals are being kept in a stable or barn.
Many different plants have been used throughout history to feed animals. The first farmers cut wild grasses for their livestock, eventually employing domesticated grasses, mainly alfalfa. Native to Asia, alfalfa spread rapidly to other parts of the world. It was grown in Central and North America by the early 1700s and in California by the mid-1800s. Timothy and clover, both native to Europe, were the plants initially used most often in the US for hay, but alfalfa overtook them in popularity by the end of the 19th century and has remained the major plant for hay.
Plants most commonly used today for hay include mixtures of grasses such as ryegrass, timothy, brome, fescue, Bermuda, and orchard, and legumes, such as alfalfa and clovers. Timothy grass and clover were the plants most commonly used for hay in the United States in the early 20th century. Oats, barley, and wheat plant materials also are sometimes cut green and made into hay for fodder; but more often they are used in the form of straw (a lower nutrition byproduct of the baling of stems and dead leaves), sometimes employed as a source of dietary fiber.
Hay is quite sensitive to weather conditions, especially when it is harvested. Hay harvesting is commonly called 'making hay' or 'haymaking,' which explains the origin of the idiom 'making hay while the sun shines.' Hay that is too wet at cutting may develop rot and mold after being baled. Harvest involves multiple steps. Whether done by hand or with modern mechanized equipment, the grass at the proper stage of maturity must be cut, allowed to dry (preferably in the sun) or 'cure,' raked into long, narrow piles known as windrows, gathered in some form (usually by some type of baling or bundling), and placed into storage as a haystack or in a barn or shed to protect it from moisture and rot. A rainy climate may dictate forced-air curing in a barn. Properly cured hay with 20% or less moisture may be stored for months without spoilage.
With the appearance in the 1960s of large bales, more hay was stored outdoors because the outer surface of the large bale performed a weather-shedding function and the large bales could be stacked efficiently. To completely keep moisture out, outside haystacks or bales can be covered by tarps, and round bales are sometimes wrapped in plastic as part of the baling process.
Until the 18th century, haymaking was a cumbersome task with little output because of the use of crude hand tools. On a good day, a farmer could harvest around one acre of hay. In the past, hay was cut by sickles and scythes by teams of workers, dried in the field, and gathered loose on wagons. Around 1790, hay production was greatly increased due to the introduction of new machinery created during the Industrial Revolution, with the main innovation being the wooden rake. By the early 19th century, haying was done with horse- or oxen-drawn implements such as mowers, allowing the use of large expanses of land.
In 1865, barn hay forks were developed; and in 1875, hay loaders and steam-powered engines were being used. With the invention and evolution of agricultural machinery such as the gasoline tractor and baler from 1905 through the 1930s, most hay production became mechanized.
Hay baling started with the invention of the hay press around 1850. The original machines used a horse-driven screw-press mechanism or a dropped weight to compress the hay. By around 1882, steam-powered baling machines were available, and in 1914 the continuous baler was introduced. The first hay bales weighed about 300 pounds.
Modern balers, developed around 1940, can produce bales in different sizes and shapes. The first ones made bales small enough for one person to lift, tied with wire or twine and usually weighing 70-100 pounds each.
Eventually, to ease labor and increase safety, mechanized loaders and stackers were developed. Later in the 20th century, balers were developed that were capable of producing huge bales weighing up to 3,000 pounds. Round or cylindrical bales are more difficult to handle than square bales but compress the hay more tightly. A wrapper may be used to seal a round bale completely and trigger a fermentation process, which acts as a preservative by preventing mold and rot.
In less developed countries, haystacks are still used. They can provide protection from weather, depending on the surface mass and shape (usually conical or with a ridged top), preserving most of the hay sufficiently to last through the winter. The top of such stacks sometimes is thatched by hand to provide better protection. The top surface of the stack generally is consigned to becoming compost the next summer. Haystacks may be built on top of a foundation, made of wood or brush and laid on the ground to reduce spoilage. They are sometimes covered with a moveable roof supported by four posts, historically called a Dutch roof, hay barrack, or hay cap. In some regions, such as areas of easter Europe, hay is stacked loose, built around a central pole or tree or within an area of three or four poles that add stability to the pile.
Use in Perfumery
Hay absolute or essential oil is obtained by extraction with volatile solvents (absolute) or by steam distillation (oil), with the oil more commonly used in perfumes. The majority of the oil is produced in the south of France.
The absolute is very viscous, with a dark forest green color that appears almost black. Initially it smells somewhat like licorice, with great density and sharpness, but within moments, the sharpness subsides and the aroma transforms into something more like sweet dried prunes. Eventually, over the course of hours, its fragrance becomes the grassy one typical of the essential oil. In some compositions with natural hay, the licorice note resurfaces intermittently. Many modern perfume products use synthetic hay notes, whose chemical structures have been derived through the use of headspace technology and other analytical processes. The main volatile compounds identified have included linalool, linalyl acetate, geraniol, and coumarin, with smaller amounts of others.
In perfume products, hay provides the sweet, green, dense, aromatic fragrance of cut grass, sometimes with the added sweetness of clover. Similar to coumarin, it is rich, pungent, herbaceous, woody, and earthy, described by some as having a dried fig essence and sometimes a slight floral tone. It sometimes has a touch of nuttiness or saltiness. In its drydown, it has a sweet tobacco-like warmth. Hay is reminiscent of barns, horses, summertime grass, carefree moments, freedom, and wide open spaces. It is an archetypal smell, bringing to mind our common ancestral heritage of herding and farming. The aroma is calming, relaxing, and inviting.
The smell of hay extract varies depending upon the type of plant material from which it was derived. Says agricultural extension agent Henry Hibbs, 'There is definite difference in the smell of alfalfa, bermuda, and fescue hay. The most notable is the difference between the legumes and the grasses. It sounds like the description of a wine... The alfalfa is a fuller, richer, and more pungent and slightly tangy-earthy smell, while the other extreme would be well sun-dried Bermuda hay, which has a fresh, clean, sunny smell. Fescues, simply because of the broader leaf and increased time required to dry in a windrow, has a tangier and heavier smell. sometimes seeming a bit musty. Timothy is especially nice because it has the least 'dry hay' smell." Orchard grass and brome, grown more in the West and Midwest, have a distinct aroma as a result of the different soils and humidity there.
The scent is complex and medium in strength, and most often it appears in the base or middle notes. Hay usually is classed in the amber family or the woody group. The hay note appears in a wide variety of fragrance types, but it has been used primarily in fougere, aromatic, and lavender compositions. It blends especially well with citrus, clary sage, ylang-ylang, tea, amber, woods, leather notes, and green notes.
Masculine fragrances with prominent hay notes:
Alfred Dunhill Blend 30
Ayala Moriel Rainforest
Claus Porto Musgo Real Agua de Colonia No 2 Oak Moss
Dolce & Gabbana Intenso
Etienne Aigner Super Fragrance
Faberge Cellini
Hendley Mown
Instituto Espanol Poseidon Impulse
Jean Patou Prive
Ligne St. Barth
Molinard Homme II
Neil Morris Flowers for Men: Gardenia
Nicolai Createur Carre d'As
Oleg Cassini
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Aviron Bayonnais Rugby
Poesie Sir
Rising Phoenix Fougere
Rosine Rose d'Homme
Victorinox Swiss Army 125 Years Your Companion for Life
Weil Gentilhomme
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Smoke
The word 'smoke' is a term used in perfumery to describe accords or notes reminiscent of fire smoke, not an indication of actual burning residue. The history of perfumery is thought to have begun with smoke itself, initially in cave fires after the discovery of fire, and later in the form of burning incense that was a vehicle for prayers by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. The word perfume is derived from the Latin per fumem, meaning 'by smoke.'
Smoke scent notes are used as part of creating the illusory effects of leather or firewood, among other accords. A smoke note generally is warm, rich, woody, and earthy. It is emotionally evocative, bringing to mind smells such as those of a mountain campfire, a burning cigarette in cold air, driftwood bonfires, burning autumn leaves, barbecued meat, incense or wax candles, an oil lantern, burned love letters, or burned sugar.
There are two main ways of creating a smoke tone. The first is to use integrated ingredients that together produce a smoky nuance to the nose, and the second is to use actual smoked raw materials. The latter method involves 'destructive distillation' of wood or other organic materials, converting them to charcoal through slow burning. Destructive distillation involves heating unprocessed raw material to a high temperature in the absence or very limited presence of oxygen and other reagents or catalysts such as steam or phenols. The process breaks up or 'cracks' large molecules and is sometimes followed by polymerizing or condensing the resultant smaller molecules back into heat-stable larger ones.
Vetiver, guaiacwood, birch tar, and cade (juniper tar) are natural ingredients that have a somewhat smoky facet. Cade, sometimes described as smelling like 'grilled leather,' is created by distillation of the burned heartwood of a Mediterranean juniper tree (J. oxycedrus) and has an intense smoky smell like that of a campfire. Vetiver has a slight woody facet that is less raw and dry than others. Birch tar comes from burned and dry-distilled birch wood and leaf buds, evokes the warm olfactory sense of a wood fire, and has a gentler smoke tone. Other natural ingredients that are sometimes smoked to produce new tones include sandalwood, cedar, oud, and patchouli, as well as resins and balsams. Vanilla can be smoked to give it a smooth liquor nuance, and smoked tobacco offers a warm, sensual, honeyed facet.
Incense scents also can have a smoky effect. Other options for adding smoke nuances include frankincense, lapsang souchong tea, resins (styrax, labdanum, opoponax), and animalic notes like castoreum. Less common ones include choya loban (made from burned olibanum wood), choya ral (from burned Indian Shorea robusta trees) or choya nakh (from burned seashells).
Synthetics can also be used to produce a smoke essence. Commonly used ones are isobutyl quinoline and guaiacol (one of the products of destructive distillation of woods and of actual smoke itself). Guaiacol smells like 'clean' smoke with phenolic and clove-like notes. The synthetic smoke scents frequently are used in combination with the natural smoke substances and with other notes such as hay or tobacco.
Smoke is tenacious and is usually is used as a base note, highlighting other scents. It also acts as a fixative for other notes. Smoke can be used with almost any accord, but it blends especially well with coniferous woods, incense woods, vanilla, amber, spices, and strong florals. It lends substance to florals such as rose, keeping them from becoming too cloying. Smoke also blends nicely with benzoin, sandalwood, rosemary, black currant, bergamot, pineapple, and lemon verbena. It is sometimes used in gourmand creations, adding balance to notes such as honey, vanilla, and honeydew melon. It often is included in very small amounts to add a masculine edge to otherwise feminine or genderless Orientals. Smoke works well with oud too, rounding it out and giving it fullness.
The scent of smoke is multifaceted and complex, made up of both pleasant and unpleasant qualities. Smoke can be subtle or pungent, and the key to the use of smoke scent seems to be in getting the balance right. Too much of it triggers an instinctual subconscious warning alert; when used sparingly, it adds richness, character, mystery, and depth. When used right, it evokes our common ancestral memories, able to create a sense of nostalgia. Smoke notes can be included in perfume products for any season, but most often they are recommended for autumn and winter. Smoke in perfumery is polarizing, with many proponents but just as many critics. In recent years, it has become a more popular ingredient.
There are few perfume compositions with a dominant smoke facet, but some masculine compositions with a distinct smoke note include:
Abdul Karim Al Faransi Dehn al Oud Cambodi, AKAF Mukhallat al Farisi, AKAF Oud Borneo, AKAF Wild Oud Cambodi
Afnan Supremacy Incense
Alexandria Aromatic Conflict
Al Haramain Khulasat al Oudh
Amouage Interlude, Amouage Memoir, Amouage Overture
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense
Armani Stronger with You
l'Artisan Tea for Two
Avon Blend 7
Beaufort London Vi et Armis
Bentley Intense
Beverly Hills Polo Club Sport 8
Bvlgari BLV
Burberry Mr. Burberry
By Killian Incense Oud
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame
Chanel Bleu de Chanel, Chanel Sycomore
Chatillon Lux Admiral
Christian Dior Fahrenheit, CD Leather Oud, CD Sauvage
Clive Christian V for Men Amber Fougere with Smoky Vetiver
Comme des Garcons 2 Man, CdG Black
Creed Aventus
Cremo Leather & Oud
DS & Durga Bowmakers
Dua King's Precious Oud
EastWest GI Joe
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength
Floris Vert Fougere
Frederic Malle Monsieur
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal l'Intense, Guerlain l'Instant de Guerlain, Guerlain Santal Royal
Heritage Berbere HB Homme 08
Hugo Boss Bottled
Issey Miyake l'Eau Super Majeure
Juicy Couture Dirty English
Knize Ten
Lalique Encre Noire
Le Labo Patchouli 24
Maison Margiela Replica By the Fireplace
MetaScent Outlaw
Michael Kors Gorgeous
MiN New York Moon Dust
Mizensir Perfect Oud
Molinard Habanita
Motley Palo Santo
Naomi Goodsir Bois d'Ascese
Nilafar du Nil Trajan
Paco Rabanne Phantom, PR Phantom Legion
Penhaligon's Portraits The Blazing Mister Sam
Pink Mahogany French Cuffs
Poesie Northmen
Puma Shake the Night
Santa Maria Nostalgia
Starck Peau de Pierre
Swedoft Bohemian
Tauer Lonestar Memories
Thierry Mugler Aura
Tiziana Terenzi Laudano Nero
Valentino Uomo
Versace Eros Flame
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Vince Camuto Smoked Oud
The word 'smoke' is a term used in perfumery to describe accords or notes reminiscent of fire smoke, not an indication of actual burning residue. The history of perfumery is thought to have begun with smoke itself, initially in cave fires after the discovery of fire, and later in the form of burning incense that was a vehicle for prayers by the ancient Egyptians and Greeks. The word perfume is derived from the Latin per fumem, meaning 'by smoke.'
Smoke scent notes are used as part of creating the illusory effects of leather or firewood, among other accords. A smoke note generally is warm, rich, woody, and earthy. It is emotionally evocative, bringing to mind smells such as those of a mountain campfire, a burning cigarette in cold air, driftwood bonfires, burning autumn leaves, barbecued meat, incense or wax candles, an oil lantern, burned love letters, or burned sugar.
There are two main ways of creating a smoke tone. The first is to use integrated ingredients that together produce a smoky nuance to the nose, and the second is to use actual smoked raw materials. The latter method involves 'destructive distillation' of wood or other organic materials, converting them to charcoal through slow burning. Destructive distillation involves heating unprocessed raw material to a high temperature in the absence or very limited presence of oxygen and other reagents or catalysts such as steam or phenols. The process breaks up or 'cracks' large molecules and is sometimes followed by polymerizing or condensing the resultant smaller molecules back into heat-stable larger ones.
Vetiver, guaiacwood, birch tar, and cade (juniper tar) are natural ingredients that have a somewhat smoky facet. Cade, sometimes described as smelling like 'grilled leather,' is created by distillation of the burned heartwood of a Mediterranean juniper tree (J. oxycedrus) and has an intense smoky smell like that of a campfire. Vetiver has a slight woody facet that is less raw and dry than others. Birch tar comes from burned and dry-distilled birch wood and leaf buds, evokes the warm olfactory sense of a wood fire, and has a gentler smoke tone. Other natural ingredients that are sometimes smoked to produce new tones include sandalwood, cedar, oud, and patchouli, as well as resins and balsams. Vanilla can be smoked to give it a smooth liquor nuance, and smoked tobacco offers a warm, sensual, honeyed facet.
Incense scents also can have a smoky effect. Other options for adding smoke nuances include frankincense, lapsang souchong tea, resins (styrax, labdanum, opoponax), and animalic notes like castoreum. Less common ones include choya loban (made from burned olibanum wood), choya ral (from burned Indian Shorea robusta trees) or choya nakh (from burned seashells).
Synthetics can also be used to produce a smoke essence. Commonly used ones are isobutyl quinoline and guaiacol (one of the products of destructive distillation of woods and of actual smoke itself). Guaiacol smells like 'clean' smoke with phenolic and clove-like notes. The synthetic smoke scents frequently are used in combination with the natural smoke substances and with other notes such as hay or tobacco.
Smoke is tenacious and is usually is used as a base note, highlighting other scents. It also acts as a fixative for other notes. Smoke can be used with almost any accord, but it blends especially well with coniferous woods, incense woods, vanilla, amber, spices, and strong florals. It lends substance to florals such as rose, keeping them from becoming too cloying. Smoke also blends nicely with benzoin, sandalwood, rosemary, black currant, bergamot, pineapple, and lemon verbena. It is sometimes used in gourmand creations, adding balance to notes such as honey, vanilla, and honeydew melon. It often is included in very small amounts to add a masculine edge to otherwise feminine or genderless Orientals. Smoke works well with oud too, rounding it out and giving it fullness.
The scent of smoke is multifaceted and complex, made up of both pleasant and unpleasant qualities. Smoke can be subtle or pungent, and the key to the use of smoke scent seems to be in getting the balance right. Too much of it triggers an instinctual subconscious warning alert; when used sparingly, it adds richness, character, mystery, and depth. When used right, it evokes our common ancestral memories, able to create a sense of nostalgia. Smoke notes can be included in perfume products for any season, but most often they are recommended for autumn and winter. Smoke in perfumery is polarizing, with many proponents but just as many critics. In recent years, it has become a more popular ingredient.
There are few perfume compositions with a dominant smoke facet, but some masculine compositions with a distinct smoke note include:
Abdul Karim Al Faransi Dehn al Oud Cambodi, AKAF Mukhallat al Farisi, AKAF Oud Borneo, AKAF Wild Oud Cambodi
Afnan Supremacy Incense
Alexandria Aromatic Conflict
Al Haramain Khulasat al Oudh
Amouage Interlude, Amouage Memoir, Amouage Overture
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense
Armani Stronger with You
l'Artisan Tea for Two
Avon Blend 7
Beaufort London Vi et Armis
Bentley Intense
Beverly Hills Polo Club Sport 8
Bvlgari BLV
Burberry Mr. Burberry
By Killian Incense Oud
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame
Chanel Bleu de Chanel, Chanel Sycomore
Chatillon Lux Admiral
Christian Dior Fahrenheit, CD Leather Oud, CD Sauvage
Clive Christian V for Men Amber Fougere with Smoky Vetiver
Comme des Garcons 2 Man, CdG Black
Creed Aventus
Cremo Leather & Oud
DS & Durga Bowmakers
Dua King's Precious Oud
EastWest GI Joe
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength
Floris Vert Fougere
Frederic Malle Monsieur
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal l'Intense, Guerlain l'Instant de Guerlain, Guerlain Santal Royal
Heritage Berbere HB Homme 08
Hugo Boss Bottled
Issey Miyake l'Eau Super Majeure
Juicy Couture Dirty English
Knize Ten
Lalique Encre Noire
Le Labo Patchouli 24
Maison Margiela Replica By the Fireplace
MetaScent Outlaw
Michael Kors Gorgeous
MiN New York Moon Dust
Mizensir Perfect Oud
Molinard Habanita
Motley Palo Santo
Naomi Goodsir Bois d'Ascese
Nilafar du Nil Trajan
Paco Rabanne Phantom, PR Phantom Legion
Penhaligon's Portraits The Blazing Mister Sam
Pink Mahogany French Cuffs
Poesie Northmen
Puma Shake the Night
Santa Maria Nostalgia
Starck Peau de Pierre
Swedoft Bohemian
Tauer Lonestar Memories
Thierry Mugler Aura
Tiziana Terenzi Laudano Nero
Valentino Uomo
Versace Eros Flame
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Vince Camuto Smoked Oud
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Cumin
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is an annual herbaceous plant in the large parsley family Apiaceae (or Umbellifereae), which also includes carrot, celery, parsnip, dill, fennel, and cilantro. The plant grows to 30-50 cm (12-20 in.) in height, with a slender spoked or branched stem with 2-3 sub-branches. This stem is gray or dark green in color. The feathery leaves are 5-10 cm (2-4 in.) long, and the flowers, small and colored pink or white, grow in clusters resembling umbrellas. An ovoid fruit (seed) is produced. The seeds are oblong in shape, ridged longitudinally, and yellow-brown to white in color. Cumin is durable and adaptable to both warm and cool climates, and it is easily grown around the world, although it thrives best in tropical or subtropical areas.
Cumin is sometimes confused with caraway (Carum carvi), another spice in the parsley family, and many European languages do not distinguish clearly between the two. Slavic languages refer to cumin as 'Roman caraway' or 'spice caraway.' However, despite the fact that the plants are close to each other botanically and the similar appearances of their seeds, their aromas and tastes are quite different.
The etymology of the name is unclear, although it has been proposed that it came from Arabic 'kammon' through French 'cumin' and Spanish 'comino' during the Arab rule in Spain in the 15th century. Others believe that it comes from the Latin term 'cuminum,' which in turn may have been derived from ancient Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. The root name probably originated in a native Sumerian language in ancient Syria.
The cumin plant is thought to have originated in Central or Southwestern Asia or in the Eastern Mediterranean. Seeds of wild cumin were excavated in the settlement of Atlit-Yam (now submerged off the coast of Israel), which has been radiocarbon dated to 8900-8300 BC, and seeds excavated in Syria have been dated to 1500-2000 BC. Cumin seeds have been found in the tombs of New Kingdom Egyptian Pharaohs, and cumin is known to have been used there as a spice, as a preservative in mummification, and in rituals. It was commonly used as a spice by the Minoans in ancient Crete, and the Greeks and Romans used it at the dining table as a pepper seasoning. Cumin is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments. In India, it has been used for millennia as an ingredient in numerous traditional recipes. In the Middle Ages, feudal lords sometimes paid their serfs with cumin, but the spice lost its popularity in Europe except in Spain. Cumin was introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists and subsequently became popular there, eventually being 'rediscovered' and regaining favor in Europe.
India is the largest producer of cumin, accounting for about 75-85% of the total. Other countries producing significant amounts are Syria, Turkey, UAE, and Iran. Smaller crops come from Chile, Mexico, Ukraine, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Mediterranean areas. The Indian population uses around half of its own cumin seed production. Two main varieties are used commercially, the Indian and the Middle Eastern types. Indian cumin contains more cuminaldehyde and has a stronger aroma. Cumin also grows wild as an introduced species in many world areas because it was often exported as part of dry bird food.
Cumin is harvested by hand when the plant has started to wither and the seeds have changed from green to whitish or brown, in some areas via the traditional thrashing of the plant with a stick. In larger commercial enterprises, the whole plant is removed and dried in the sun, then threshed by machine to obtain the seeds. The seeds are dried further, until they retain only about 10% of their moisture content.
Cumin Essential Oil
The essential oil is extracted most often through steam distillation of the dried and ground seeds. It can also be produced by supercritical gaseous extraction, which is reputed to give the oil an aroma closer to that of the fresh spice. The essential oil is thin and clear to yellow color. The major aromatic components of cumin oil identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry are cuminaldehyde, cymene, and terpenoids, with cuminaldehyde the primary one providing fragrance. Others contributing scent include limonene and pinene. Cuminaldehyde, mentioned in the chemical literature since the 1880s, is also found in the oils of eucalyptus, myrrh, and cassia. It has been synthesized in labs since the 1950s, and today most commercial cuminaldehyde used in perfumes and for flavoring is synthetic.
Use in Perfumery
Cumin oil has a very pungent, bitter-sour note that can resemble the smell of sweat. It has penetrating, green, herbal, warm spicy-musky, almost curry-like facts with hints of leather and aniseed. It is sometimes described as having nutty and resinous tones. Quite polarizing, it can highlight a fragrance, providing an intimate, almost animalic note if used sparingly (i.e. at 1% or less); if used at too high a concentration it is unpleasant for many users. One critic said that it produces an image of a 'hooker eating a burrito.' The scent is used mainly in men's perfume products to offset lighter notes, as well as in eaux fraîches. It is usually among a composition's heart notes, but it is quite persistent and can act as a fixative base note. Cumin still is not used often in perfumery, but it appears most frequently in Oriental, woody, and chypre fragrances.
Cumin is also used in fragrances as a substitute for animal sources that no longer are available and in place of other synthetics that do not create the same intimacy. It pairs well with floral and woody accords, it often is among the spices used in some Oriental fragrances. The scent of cumin oil blends especially well with angelica root, caraway, cinnamon, cilantro, coriander, nutmeg, clove, lavender, orange blossom, rosemary, and chamomile. Other scents used sometimes to 'round out' the cumin include dill, fennel, peppermint, wintergreen, and frankincense. Some experts have said that cumin adds an 'old money' tone to elegant and expensive compositions. Cumin is used carefully and delicately in Cartier Declaration and more boldly in Amouage Epic and the musky Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male.
The comparison of cumin's scent to that of body odor has been very common and is reinforced by use of the spice in many classic French perfumes that have had a somewhat 'dirty' undertone and by its description by expert Chandler Burr as being like female perspiration. Researchers at perfume houses, however, have disagreed with the comparison, citing a lack of shared aromachemistry compounds but also noting that cumin scent is secreted easily in perspiration, like other pungent spices such as fenugreek and aniseed.
Other Uses
In cookery, cumin is used mainly to flavor breads, cakes, cheeses, chili con carne, couscous, curries, meat dishes, and liqueurs. It is part of the Indian combination of sweet spices of Garam Marsala. In recent decades, its popularity has grown in the US through the influence of Latin American cuisine.
Cumin has purported medicinal uses in traditional medicine, e.g. to treat pain, inflammation, nausea and digestive problems, and skin conditions, but reports are mostly anecdotal, and there is no high-quality evidence for its therapeutic effectiveness or safety. Cumin has been used in veterinary medicine for various purposes.
Black Cumin
The term 'black cumin' is used to refer to the seeds of two plants that are unrelated to true cumin but are also used in cookery and occasionally in perfumery:
Nigella sativa, part of the buttercup or crowfoot family, stronger in flavor than cumin and frequently added to Indian spice mixes. It has a characteristic phenolic scent reminiscent of thyme and fennel, with berry nuances. It is noticeable in Christophe Laudamiel's perfume Community The Zoo.
Elwendia persica, sometimes called zira cumin, used in Middle Eastern cuisine and being somewhat similar to caraway but with a stronger smoky aroma
Masculine cumin fragrances:
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca Citrus Cedro
Ajmal Taaj Al Raas
Alyssa Ashley Oud
Amouage Epic, Amouage Fate
Antonio Banderas The Golden Secret, AB The Secret Game
Aramis Tuscany Forte
Armaf Craze Bleu, Armaf Shades Wood
Asgharali Fursan Al Oruba
Athena Midas
Azzaro Summer Edition 2013
Baldessarini
Bramasole Alchemical Spice
Burberry Brit Rhythm Intense
Cartier Declaration Fraiche
Cerruti 1881
Chopard Black Incense Malaki
Christine Darvin Lexus Gold
Christian Dior Fahrenheit
David Thibaud-Bourahla l'Indigene
De Leon Grey Vetiver
Eden Classics Rapport Sport
Faberge Turbo
Franck Boclet Oud
Francis Kurkdjian Lumiere Noire
Gant Indigo
Geo. F. Trumper Eucris
Giorgio Armani Eau de Cedre, GA Gio 2015
Isey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey Or Encens
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male (var.)
Laurent Mazzone Black Oud
Lomani AB Spirit Millionaire, Lomani Amitabh Bachchan, Lomani Gold
Louis Armand Rodeo Kings
Mahogany for Men, Mahogany Wood
Odetu Black Beard
Orientica Muntasira Dhahab
Pascal Morabito Rugby
Perfumer's Workshop Samba Rock & Roll
Quearme N-Geen
Rasasi Daarej, Rasasi Maa Arwaak, Rasasi Numero Uno
Regalien Musk Barrel
Roja Dove Danger
Salvatore Ferragamo Urban Feel
Sergio Soldano
Stefano Ricci Platinum
Ulric de Varens Homme Intense
Victorinox Swiss Army Rock
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Yardley Citrus & Wood
Zilli Millesime Bois de Feu
Cumin (Cuminum cyminum) is an annual herbaceous plant in the large parsley family Apiaceae (or Umbellifereae), which also includes carrot, celery, parsnip, dill, fennel, and cilantro. The plant grows to 30-50 cm (12-20 in.) in height, with a slender spoked or branched stem with 2-3 sub-branches. This stem is gray or dark green in color. The feathery leaves are 5-10 cm (2-4 in.) long, and the flowers, small and colored pink or white, grow in clusters resembling umbrellas. An ovoid fruit (seed) is produced. The seeds are oblong in shape, ridged longitudinally, and yellow-brown to white in color. Cumin is durable and adaptable to both warm and cool climates, and it is easily grown around the world, although it thrives best in tropical or subtropical areas.
Cumin is sometimes confused with caraway (Carum carvi), another spice in the parsley family, and many European languages do not distinguish clearly between the two. Slavic languages refer to cumin as 'Roman caraway' or 'spice caraway.' However, despite the fact that the plants are close to each other botanically and the similar appearances of their seeds, their aromas and tastes are quite different.
The etymology of the name is unclear, although it has been proposed that it came from Arabic 'kammon' through French 'cumin' and Spanish 'comino' during the Arab rule in Spain in the 15th century. Others believe that it comes from the Latin term 'cuminum,' which in turn may have been derived from ancient Greek, Hebrew, and Arabic. The root name probably originated in a native Sumerian language in ancient Syria.
The cumin plant is thought to have originated in Central or Southwestern Asia or in the Eastern Mediterranean. Seeds of wild cumin were excavated in the settlement of Atlit-Yam (now submerged off the coast of Israel), which has been radiocarbon dated to 8900-8300 BC, and seeds excavated in Syria have been dated to 1500-2000 BC. Cumin seeds have been found in the tombs of New Kingdom Egyptian Pharaohs, and cumin is known to have been used there as a spice, as a preservative in mummification, and in rituals. It was commonly used as a spice by the Minoans in ancient Crete, and the Greeks and Romans used it at the dining table as a pepper seasoning. Cumin is mentioned in both the Old and New Testaments. In India, it has been used for millennia as an ingredient in numerous traditional recipes. In the Middle Ages, feudal lords sometimes paid their serfs with cumin, but the spice lost its popularity in Europe except in Spain. Cumin was introduced to the Americas by Spanish and Portuguese colonists and subsequently became popular there, eventually being 'rediscovered' and regaining favor in Europe.
India is the largest producer of cumin, accounting for about 75-85% of the total. Other countries producing significant amounts are Syria, Turkey, UAE, and Iran. Smaller crops come from Chile, Mexico, Ukraine, Afghanistan, Pakistan, and Mediterranean areas. The Indian population uses around half of its own cumin seed production. Two main varieties are used commercially, the Indian and the Middle Eastern types. Indian cumin contains more cuminaldehyde and has a stronger aroma. Cumin also grows wild as an introduced species in many world areas because it was often exported as part of dry bird food.
Cumin is harvested by hand when the plant has started to wither and the seeds have changed from green to whitish or brown, in some areas via the traditional thrashing of the plant with a stick. In larger commercial enterprises, the whole plant is removed and dried in the sun, then threshed by machine to obtain the seeds. The seeds are dried further, until they retain only about 10% of their moisture content.
Cumin Essential Oil
The essential oil is extracted most often through steam distillation of the dried and ground seeds. It can also be produced by supercritical gaseous extraction, which is reputed to give the oil an aroma closer to that of the fresh spice. The essential oil is thin and clear to yellow color. The major aromatic components of cumin oil identified by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry are cuminaldehyde, cymene, and terpenoids, with cuminaldehyde the primary one providing fragrance. Others contributing scent include limonene and pinene. Cuminaldehyde, mentioned in the chemical literature since the 1880s, is also found in the oils of eucalyptus, myrrh, and cassia. It has been synthesized in labs since the 1950s, and today most commercial cuminaldehyde used in perfumes and for flavoring is synthetic.
Use in Perfumery
Cumin oil has a very pungent, bitter-sour note that can resemble the smell of sweat. It has penetrating, green, herbal, warm spicy-musky, almost curry-like facts with hints of leather and aniseed. It is sometimes described as having nutty and resinous tones. Quite polarizing, it can highlight a fragrance, providing an intimate, almost animalic note if used sparingly (i.e. at 1% or less); if used at too high a concentration it is unpleasant for many users. One critic said that it produces an image of a 'hooker eating a burrito.' The scent is used mainly in men's perfume products to offset lighter notes, as well as in eaux fraîches. It is usually among a composition's heart notes, but it is quite persistent and can act as a fixative base note. Cumin still is not used often in perfumery, but it appears most frequently in Oriental, woody, and chypre fragrances.
Cumin is also used in fragrances as a substitute for animal sources that no longer are available and in place of other synthetics that do not create the same intimacy. It pairs well with floral and woody accords, it often is among the spices used in some Oriental fragrances. The scent of cumin oil blends especially well with angelica root, caraway, cinnamon, cilantro, coriander, nutmeg, clove, lavender, orange blossom, rosemary, and chamomile. Other scents used sometimes to 'round out' the cumin include dill, fennel, peppermint, wintergreen, and frankincense. Some experts have said that cumin adds an 'old money' tone to elegant and expensive compositions. Cumin is used carefully and delicately in Cartier Declaration and more boldly in Amouage Epic and the musky Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male.
The comparison of cumin's scent to that of body odor has been very common and is reinforced by use of the spice in many classic French perfumes that have had a somewhat 'dirty' undertone and by its description by expert Chandler Burr as being like female perspiration. Researchers at perfume houses, however, have disagreed with the comparison, citing a lack of shared aromachemistry compounds but also noting that cumin scent is secreted easily in perspiration, like other pungent spices such as fenugreek and aniseed.
Other Uses
In cookery, cumin is used mainly to flavor breads, cakes, cheeses, chili con carne, couscous, curries, meat dishes, and liqueurs. It is part of the Indian combination of sweet spices of Garam Marsala. In recent decades, its popularity has grown in the US through the influence of Latin American cuisine.
Cumin has purported medicinal uses in traditional medicine, e.g. to treat pain, inflammation, nausea and digestive problems, and skin conditions, but reports are mostly anecdotal, and there is no high-quality evidence for its therapeutic effectiveness or safety. Cumin has been used in veterinary medicine for various purposes.
Black Cumin
The term 'black cumin' is used to refer to the seeds of two plants that are unrelated to true cumin but are also used in cookery and occasionally in perfumery:
Nigella sativa, part of the buttercup or crowfoot family, stronger in flavor than cumin and frequently added to Indian spice mixes. It has a characteristic phenolic scent reminiscent of thyme and fennel, with berry nuances. It is noticeable in Christophe Laudamiel's perfume Community The Zoo.
Elwendia persica, sometimes called zira cumin, used in Middle Eastern cuisine and being somewhat similar to caraway but with a stronger smoky aroma
Masculine cumin fragrances:
Adolfo Dominguez Agua Fresca Citrus Cedro
Ajmal Taaj Al Raas
Alyssa Ashley Oud
Amouage Epic, Amouage Fate
Antonio Banderas The Golden Secret, AB The Secret Game
Aramis Tuscany Forte
Armaf Craze Bleu, Armaf Shades Wood
Asgharali Fursan Al Oruba
Athena Midas
Azzaro Summer Edition 2013
Baldessarini
Bramasole Alchemical Spice
Burberry Brit Rhythm Intense
Cartier Declaration Fraiche
Cerruti 1881
Chopard Black Incense Malaki
Christine Darvin Lexus Gold
Christian Dior Fahrenheit
David Thibaud-Bourahla l'Indigene
De Leon Grey Vetiver
Eden Classics Rapport Sport
Faberge Turbo
Franck Boclet Oud
Francis Kurkdjian Lumiere Noire
Gant Indigo
Geo. F. Trumper Eucris
Giorgio Armani Eau de Cedre, GA Gio 2015
Isey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey Or Encens
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male (var.)
Laurent Mazzone Black Oud
Lomani AB Spirit Millionaire, Lomani Amitabh Bachchan, Lomani Gold
Louis Armand Rodeo Kings
Mahogany for Men, Mahogany Wood
Odetu Black Beard
Orientica Muntasira Dhahab
Pascal Morabito Rugby
Perfumer's Workshop Samba Rock & Roll
Quearme N-Geen
Rasasi Daarej, Rasasi Maa Arwaak, Rasasi Numero Uno
Regalien Musk Barrel
Roja Dove Danger
Salvatore Ferragamo Urban Feel
Sergio Soldano
Stefano Ricci Platinum
Ulric de Varens Homme Intense
Victorinox Swiss Army Rock
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb Extreme
Yardley Citrus & Wood
Zilli Millesime Bois de Feu
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Gourmand
Gourmand scents are those with 'edible' or dessert-like' qualities. By strict definition, a gourmand fragrance is one consisting primarily or at least partly of synthetic top and middle notes designed to resemble food flavors. They have sometimes been called olfactory desserts, and in discussions of women's perfumes they often are called 'foodie' fragrances. Most gourmand scents are not intended for human consumption, although a subgroup of them include flavor in addition to scent, such as Jessica Simpson's Dessert Treats line of lip glosses, dusting powders, and lotions.
A London-based online fragrance magazine, 'The Perfume Society,' defines gourmand by saying, "Think: caramel, chocolate, milk, candy floss, coffee, cognac, toffee, almonds, even bubble gum..." Gourmands are the newest group among fragrances. It does not constitute a full-fledged fragrance family, and it is usually considered a subcategory of the general modern family of scents. Some consider it a subdivision of the Oriental group, and it is sometimes categorized in combination with the fruits and amber families.
Gourmand compositions using natural notes are most often built on vanilla, resembling sweets and desserts, and ranging from simple chocolate, cream, and caramel smells to more complex ones such as macaroons, crème brûlée, and cupcakes. Although some natural organic materials present sweet or food-like facets, the vast majority of gourmand notes used in perfumery are now produced through synthetics or mingling of natural and synthetic sources. Natural notes include vanillin, tonka bean, benzoin, roasted coffee, coconut, and honey; nearly all others, including caramel and chocolate, are synthetic 'fantasy' notes that have been developed since the laboratory aroma-chemical discoveries of the 1940s. These accords often rely heavily on derivatives of furaneol, sacrasol, maltol, and ethyl maltol (also called veltol or ethyl praline). Furaneol is a natural organic component found in strawberries and many other fruits. It has roasted sugar tones and is also used to reproduce the smells of fresh pineapple and candy. Maltol (found naturally in cocoa) suggests the aroma of chocolate. Isolated in 1969, ethyl maltol is six times more potent than maltol and evokes accents of ripe fruit, praline, and caramel. Other commonly used synthetics include diacetyl (salted butter smell), pyrazines (popcorn), and chocovan (chocolate milk).
In a 2016 interview, Givaudan creative fragrance director Naila Hamayed commented about the gourmand, "It's not a trend anymore, it's a must, something that is here to last." Initially aimed primarily to teenage girls, gourmand fragrances have become much more common, and the market has become saturated with them following some major sales successes.
Many compositions that have been termed gourmand simply create the impression of sweetness and/or edibility without actually having any individual food notes. These have been termed 'semi-gourmand' by some writers. They first appeared as early as 1850, when Piver's Heliotrope Blanc suggested a pastry shop, a sort of candied white-flower almond. In 1919, Guerlain created Mitsouko, whose undecalactone conjured a milky, velvety peach note over spices and cinnamon. And the Art Deco fragrance period (1925-39) was characterized by the heavy use of ethyl vanillin, such as in Guerlain Shalimar.
But food-like scents have been available more widely since the 1950s, beginning around 1956 with Edmond Roundnitska's Diorissimo. Vanilia by l'Artisan Parfumeur used ethyl maltol (the scent of spun sugar and of caramel) prominently in the late 1970s. Since then many perfume houses, including Guerlain, Caron, Christian Dior, and Givenchy have produced perfume products with abstract subtle hints of food notes but without explicit 'flavors.'
Thierry Mugler's Angel, created by Olivier Cresp and launched in 1992, is usually credited as the first truly modern gourmand scent. It produced a caramel, chocolate, honey, and cotton candy effect primarily through the heavy use of ethyl maltol, combined with vanillin and natural patchouli. Angel scandalized people by the 'bombastic' dynamic proportions of its various facets. Prior to its heavy overuse in Angel, ethyl maltol had served merely as a flavor enhancer in the food industry because of its low price and the variety of its sweet facets. According to perfume historians, Angel's revolution was less about extrapolating a tone that already existed than it was about breaking down the invisible wall between flavor and fragrance, between taste and smell, and making perfume more intimate and impulsive. From being a luxury item, inaccessible and composed of exotic materials, perfume became a consumable, sharing aromas with common items of our daily life, such as candies.
It has been said that 1992, the year of Mugler's introduction of Angel, was a pivotal year in the world, the perfect time for a sweet gourmand composition to be launched. The Berlin Wall had collapsed and Germany was reunited, the USSR had fallen apart, the first Gulf War had started, and there were escalating tensions in Greece and the Balkans. These events produced a palpable, intense uncertainty, especially in the context of an approaching new millennium; and this is thought to have forced a retreat to a universal experience of comfort: the reassurance of childhood innocence, a time of candy being bought in fairs, of candied apples being glazed, and of chocolate and pastries. Thus the craze for gourmand perfumes can be seen as simply regressive, a desire to 'smell like a cookie' and return to a simpler and more carefree time.
Other early examples of synthetics being used to produce gourmand images included Mugler A*Men, Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin, Calvin Klein Euphoria, Burberry Brit for Men, Rochas Man, and Viktor & Rolf Antidote. Perfumer Antoine Lie stated, "Angel was the most important fragrance in the history of gourmand so far." And Julie Dechamps, scent design manager at IFF, said, "The trend started with Angel; Lolita Lempicka was also very influential on this category with its licorice note; and later still, Hypnotic Poison with its pastry-like powdery facet. Since then, all the houses have started to look more closely at the collaboration between the flavor and fragrance sides in the search for innovation in gourmand." Since the introduction of Angel, the gourmand trend has increased steadily in popularity.
According to Mathilde Lion, expert for the NPD Group, gourmand scents comprise 68% of the French market and 74% of the British market. And according to perfumer Émelie Coppermann, the trend is continuing strongly. She says, "Gourmand fragrances have been successful for more than 15 years now, but this trend does not decrease. On the contrary - we are indeed facing uncertain times, and it makes us long for reassurance. Gourmand scents bring us comfort, often taking us back to positive childhood memories." Christian Dior perfumer Francois Demachy thinks that the gourmand trend has been a very deep one for 10-15 years, saying, "Due to the sense of security and comfort they bring, gourmand notes have gained increasing popularity over the last two decades; not only ladies love them, but gentlemen seem happy to share their passion too."
Some studies have suggested that men are attracted to certain food odors. In the 1990s, Dr. Alan Hirsch, of the Chicago-based Smell and Taste Treatment and Research Foundation, published research results showing that men were aroused by the scents of cinnamon buns, pumpkin pie, licorice, and buttered popcorn. His studies indicated that older men were especially aroused by vanilla. It has been theorized that gourmand perfumes act as an antidepressant, causing endorphin release. Says perfumer Marine Ipert, "Primarily, sugar helps to fuel our bodies and ease our minds. Take the example of a crying baby - just a drop of sugary water will make them feel relieved instantly! Gourmand fragrances have the same effect, by making us feel good and peaceful. They're reassuring and comforting, like a cuddly toy." Says expert Alessandra Tucci, "Vanilla scents have been completely integrated into male fragrances, as well as florals and fruits."
In general, gourmand fragrances are warm and most wearable in the cooler seasons, when uplifting feelings are most desired; and they tend to lend themselves especially to romantic evening use. The prevailing concept is that gourmand scents are not 'difficult' fragrances to wear or appreciate; one does not have to deconstruct or intellectualize a gourmand fragrance. Initially in the 1990s, gourmand notes were used mostly in feminine fragrances, but they are now included in a growing number of masculine scents and are generally considered gender-neutral. Gourmand notes frequently are combined with woody, spicy, resinous tones such as amber and cinnamon, and with use of darker or complex base notes such as patchouli or musk. Other notes frequently used in combination with gourmands include bergamot, citrus fruits, and florals.
Some perfumers have had mixed feelings about the gourmand fragrances. Jean-Claude Ellena, author and perfumer for Hermes, admires Angel but has some reservations. He says, "It has a strong shape. People can recognize you in the street as somebody who wears Angel." But he refuses to use sugary notes in his own perfumes: "When you use a sugary gourmand product, I know by experience that you please easily. And when you please easily, people are pleased for the moment, but they forget. I prefer a perfume that is more difficult to understand."
Others have claimed that despite its growth, the gourmand group actually has not changed much in character over the last 20-30 years. Perfumer Ralf Schwieger has stated that "the ethyl maltol overdose has just been going up and up. Now it is averaging around 4%. You're coming to percentages as high as 5%, and we're only talking about fine fragrances. In the US, with all the specialty retail fragrances such as Bath & Body Works, there is no limit to sweetness."
In a search for innovation, companies have turned increasingly to flavorists to advise them in how to natural food accords more accurately. Brands have hinted at savory gourmand notes as a way to differentiate themselves - and to develop gourmand smells away from generic caramel-type sweetness and more toward notes that cross the boundaries between main course and dessert. As the personal care market has evolved, perfumers have created fragrances with 'nouvelle' notes. Savory gourmand is interesting from creative and marketing standpoints because it opens the way for perfumers to experiments with another level of accords: steamed, poached, boiled, grilled, roasted, barbecued, pickled, etc. Already the company Demeter Perfumes has created fragrances called BBQ, Chipotle Pepper, Fiery Curry, Lobster, Rye Bread, Stringbean, Sushi, and Pizza. But not everyone sees the potential for non-sweet gourmand. Says perfumer Andreas Wilhelm, "The trend for savory gourmand has shown itself not to work in every market. Middle Eastern customers, for example, never got attracted by salty, and I am not sure if they will be attracted by other savory gourmand directions."
Gourmand fragrances generally considered masculine:
Adidas Originals (cotton candy), Adidas Unlock (candies)
Alfred Dunhill Egyptian Smoke (candies)
Annayake (cotton candy), Annayake Tsukiyo (cream)
Aquolina Blue Sugar (cotton candy), Aquolina Steel Sugar (gingerbread)
Asgharali Iconic (brown sugar)
Avon Pulse Level (dark chocolate)
Axe Dark Temptation (dark chocolate), Axe Provoke (marshamallow)
Azzaro The Most Wanted (toffee)
Bond No. 9 New Haarlem (coffee)
Bottega Profumiera Gourmand (vanilla, caramel)
By Kilian Gold Knight (honey)
Calvin Klein Dark Obsession (vanilla), CK Euphoria Amber Gold (honey)
Carolina Herrera 212 Glam (dark chocolate), Carolina Herrera CH (sugar)
Cartier l'Envol (honey)
Charriol Infinite Celtic Ultimate (dates)
Chopard Casran (dates)
Code Deco Tasman in Grey (maple syrup)
Cristiano Ronaldo Legacy (maple syrup)
Dame Chocolate Man (dark chocolate)
Diesel Fuel for Life (semi-gourmand)
Dolce & Gabbana The One Luminous Night (dates)
Eclectic Carte Blanche (cupcake)
English Laundry Tahitian Waters (brown sugar)
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength (candies)
Etat Libre d'Orange Vetiver (cream)
Frederick Malle Musc Ravageur (vanilla)
Giorgio Armani Stronger with You Intensely (toffee)
Guerlain Habit Rouge (vanilla, fruits), Guerlain HR Dress Code (praline), Guerlain l'Homme Ideal (cherry, almond)
Houbigant Figuier Noir (candied fruits)
Jean Paul Gaultier Scandal (caramel)
John Varvatos (dates)
Joop! Joop! (praline)
Kenzo Homme Fresh (candies)
Lacoste L.12.12 Noir (watermelon, chocolate)
Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin (licorice)
Marly Haltane (praline)
Matriarch Sacre Tabac Sucre (molasses)
Milton Lloyd Spirit of Heaven (caramel)
Nasomatto Pardon (dark chocolate)
O Boticario Egeo Beat (cereals), OB Egeo Bomb (caramel), OB Egeo Bomb Black (tiramisu), OB Lhotse Irresistivel (candies), OB The Blend Bourbon (creme brulee)
Oriflame Born to Fly (agave nectar)
Oriza Legrand Horizon (marmalade)
O.U.i. Individual Iconique 001 (brown sugar)
Paco Rabanne Pure XS Night (caramel), PR Black XS (praline), PR Black XS l'Aphrodisiaque (praline)
Playboy VIP (white chocolate)
Ralph Lauren Big Pony 2 (dark chocolate), RL Polo Supreme Leather (honey)
Roberto Cavalli (honey)
Rochas Man (vanilla)
Roccobarocco Last King (cream)
Royal Barber Golden Blade (candied fruits)
Salvatore Ferragamo Uomo (coffee, chocolate, vanilla, candies)
Swedoft Spice Surprise (dates)
Swiss Arabian Suroor (marmalade)
Thera Cosmeticos Amatus (frosting), TC Hazor (brown sugar)
Thierry Mugler A*Men (vanilla, chocolate, coffee), TMA Pure Havane (honey), TM Angel (dark chocolate)
Tommy Hilfiger 10 (cotton candy)
Valentino Uomo (vanilla, dark chocolate), VU Born in Roma Yellow Dream (gingerbread)
Yardley Gentleman Classic (white chocolate)
Zara Scent #2 (dark chocolate), Zara Tobacco Rich Warm Addictive (honey)
Gourmand scents are those with 'edible' or dessert-like' qualities. By strict definition, a gourmand fragrance is one consisting primarily or at least partly of synthetic top and middle notes designed to resemble food flavors. They have sometimes been called olfactory desserts, and in discussions of women's perfumes they often are called 'foodie' fragrances. Most gourmand scents are not intended for human consumption, although a subgroup of them include flavor in addition to scent, such as Jessica Simpson's Dessert Treats line of lip glosses, dusting powders, and lotions.
A London-based online fragrance magazine, 'The Perfume Society,' defines gourmand by saying, "Think: caramel, chocolate, milk, candy floss, coffee, cognac, toffee, almonds, even bubble gum..." Gourmands are the newest group among fragrances. It does not constitute a full-fledged fragrance family, and it is usually considered a subcategory of the general modern family of scents. Some consider it a subdivision of the Oriental group, and it is sometimes categorized in combination with the fruits and amber families.
Gourmand compositions using natural notes are most often built on vanilla, resembling sweets and desserts, and ranging from simple chocolate, cream, and caramel smells to more complex ones such as macaroons, crème brûlée, and cupcakes. Although some natural organic materials present sweet or food-like facets, the vast majority of gourmand notes used in perfumery are now produced through synthetics or mingling of natural and synthetic sources. Natural notes include vanillin, tonka bean, benzoin, roasted coffee, coconut, and honey; nearly all others, including caramel and chocolate, are synthetic 'fantasy' notes that have been developed since the laboratory aroma-chemical discoveries of the 1940s. These accords often rely heavily on derivatives of furaneol, sacrasol, maltol, and ethyl maltol (also called veltol or ethyl praline). Furaneol is a natural organic component found in strawberries and many other fruits. It has roasted sugar tones and is also used to reproduce the smells of fresh pineapple and candy. Maltol (found naturally in cocoa) suggests the aroma of chocolate. Isolated in 1969, ethyl maltol is six times more potent than maltol and evokes accents of ripe fruit, praline, and caramel. Other commonly used synthetics include diacetyl (salted butter smell), pyrazines (popcorn), and chocovan (chocolate milk).
In a 2016 interview, Givaudan creative fragrance director Naila Hamayed commented about the gourmand, "It's not a trend anymore, it's a must, something that is here to last." Initially aimed primarily to teenage girls, gourmand fragrances have become much more common, and the market has become saturated with them following some major sales successes.
Many compositions that have been termed gourmand simply create the impression of sweetness and/or edibility without actually having any individual food notes. These have been termed 'semi-gourmand' by some writers. They first appeared as early as 1850, when Piver's Heliotrope Blanc suggested a pastry shop, a sort of candied white-flower almond. In 1919, Guerlain created Mitsouko, whose undecalactone conjured a milky, velvety peach note over spices and cinnamon. And the Art Deco fragrance period (1925-39) was characterized by the heavy use of ethyl vanillin, such as in Guerlain Shalimar.
But food-like scents have been available more widely since the 1950s, beginning around 1956 with Edmond Roundnitska's Diorissimo. Vanilia by l'Artisan Parfumeur used ethyl maltol (the scent of spun sugar and of caramel) prominently in the late 1970s. Since then many perfume houses, including Guerlain, Caron, Christian Dior, and Givenchy have produced perfume products with abstract subtle hints of food notes but without explicit 'flavors.'
Thierry Mugler's Angel, created by Olivier Cresp and launched in 1992, is usually credited as the first truly modern gourmand scent. It produced a caramel, chocolate, honey, and cotton candy effect primarily through the heavy use of ethyl maltol, combined with vanillin and natural patchouli. Angel scandalized people by the 'bombastic' dynamic proportions of its various facets. Prior to its heavy overuse in Angel, ethyl maltol had served merely as a flavor enhancer in the food industry because of its low price and the variety of its sweet facets. According to perfume historians, Angel's revolution was less about extrapolating a tone that already existed than it was about breaking down the invisible wall between flavor and fragrance, between taste and smell, and making perfume more intimate and impulsive. From being a luxury item, inaccessible and composed of exotic materials, perfume became a consumable, sharing aromas with common items of our daily life, such as candies.
It has been said that 1992, the year of Mugler's introduction of Angel, was a pivotal year in the world, the perfect time for a sweet gourmand composition to be launched. The Berlin Wall had collapsed and Germany was reunited, the USSR had fallen apart, the first Gulf War had started, and there were escalating tensions in Greece and the Balkans. These events produced a palpable, intense uncertainty, especially in the context of an approaching new millennium; and this is thought to have forced a retreat to a universal experience of comfort: the reassurance of childhood innocence, a time of candy being bought in fairs, of candied apples being glazed, and of chocolate and pastries. Thus the craze for gourmand perfumes can be seen as simply regressive, a desire to 'smell like a cookie' and return to a simpler and more carefree time.
Other early examples of synthetics being used to produce gourmand images included Mugler A*Men, Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin, Calvin Klein Euphoria, Burberry Brit for Men, Rochas Man, and Viktor & Rolf Antidote. Perfumer Antoine Lie stated, "Angel was the most important fragrance in the history of gourmand so far." And Julie Dechamps, scent design manager at IFF, said, "The trend started with Angel; Lolita Lempicka was also very influential on this category with its licorice note; and later still, Hypnotic Poison with its pastry-like powdery facet. Since then, all the houses have started to look more closely at the collaboration between the flavor and fragrance sides in the search for innovation in gourmand." Since the introduction of Angel, the gourmand trend has increased steadily in popularity.
According to Mathilde Lion, expert for the NPD Group, gourmand scents comprise 68% of the French market and 74% of the British market. And according to perfumer Émelie Coppermann, the trend is continuing strongly. She says, "Gourmand fragrances have been successful for more than 15 years now, but this trend does not decrease. On the contrary - we are indeed facing uncertain times, and it makes us long for reassurance. Gourmand scents bring us comfort, often taking us back to positive childhood memories." Christian Dior perfumer Francois Demachy thinks that the gourmand trend has been a very deep one for 10-15 years, saying, "Due to the sense of security and comfort they bring, gourmand notes have gained increasing popularity over the last two decades; not only ladies love them, but gentlemen seem happy to share their passion too."
Some studies have suggested that men are attracted to certain food odors. In the 1990s, Dr. Alan Hirsch, of the Chicago-based Smell and Taste Treatment and Research Foundation, published research results showing that men were aroused by the scents of cinnamon buns, pumpkin pie, licorice, and buttered popcorn. His studies indicated that older men were especially aroused by vanilla. It has been theorized that gourmand perfumes act as an antidepressant, causing endorphin release. Says perfumer Marine Ipert, "Primarily, sugar helps to fuel our bodies and ease our minds. Take the example of a crying baby - just a drop of sugary water will make them feel relieved instantly! Gourmand fragrances have the same effect, by making us feel good and peaceful. They're reassuring and comforting, like a cuddly toy." Says expert Alessandra Tucci, "Vanilla scents have been completely integrated into male fragrances, as well as florals and fruits."
In general, gourmand fragrances are warm and most wearable in the cooler seasons, when uplifting feelings are most desired; and they tend to lend themselves especially to romantic evening use. The prevailing concept is that gourmand scents are not 'difficult' fragrances to wear or appreciate; one does not have to deconstruct or intellectualize a gourmand fragrance. Initially in the 1990s, gourmand notes were used mostly in feminine fragrances, but they are now included in a growing number of masculine scents and are generally considered gender-neutral. Gourmand notes frequently are combined with woody, spicy, resinous tones such as amber and cinnamon, and with use of darker or complex base notes such as patchouli or musk. Other notes frequently used in combination with gourmands include bergamot, citrus fruits, and florals.
Some perfumers have had mixed feelings about the gourmand fragrances. Jean-Claude Ellena, author and perfumer for Hermes, admires Angel but has some reservations. He says, "It has a strong shape. People can recognize you in the street as somebody who wears Angel." But he refuses to use sugary notes in his own perfumes: "When you use a sugary gourmand product, I know by experience that you please easily. And when you please easily, people are pleased for the moment, but they forget. I prefer a perfume that is more difficult to understand."
Others have claimed that despite its growth, the gourmand group actually has not changed much in character over the last 20-30 years. Perfumer Ralf Schwieger has stated that "the ethyl maltol overdose has just been going up and up. Now it is averaging around 4%. You're coming to percentages as high as 5%, and we're only talking about fine fragrances. In the US, with all the specialty retail fragrances such as Bath & Body Works, there is no limit to sweetness."
In a search for innovation, companies have turned increasingly to flavorists to advise them in how to natural food accords more accurately. Brands have hinted at savory gourmand notes as a way to differentiate themselves - and to develop gourmand smells away from generic caramel-type sweetness and more toward notes that cross the boundaries between main course and dessert. As the personal care market has evolved, perfumers have created fragrances with 'nouvelle' notes. Savory gourmand is interesting from creative and marketing standpoints because it opens the way for perfumers to experiments with another level of accords: steamed, poached, boiled, grilled, roasted, barbecued, pickled, etc. Already the company Demeter Perfumes has created fragrances called BBQ, Chipotle Pepper, Fiery Curry, Lobster, Rye Bread, Stringbean, Sushi, and Pizza. But not everyone sees the potential for non-sweet gourmand. Says perfumer Andreas Wilhelm, "The trend for savory gourmand has shown itself not to work in every market. Middle Eastern customers, for example, never got attracted by salty, and I am not sure if they will be attracted by other savory gourmand directions."
Gourmand fragrances generally considered masculine:
Adidas Originals (cotton candy), Adidas Unlock (candies)
Alfred Dunhill Egyptian Smoke (candies)
Annayake (cotton candy), Annayake Tsukiyo (cream)
Aquolina Blue Sugar (cotton candy), Aquolina Steel Sugar (gingerbread)
Asgharali Iconic (brown sugar)
Avon Pulse Level (dark chocolate)
Axe Dark Temptation (dark chocolate), Axe Provoke (marshamallow)
Azzaro The Most Wanted (toffee)
Bond No. 9 New Haarlem (coffee)
Bottega Profumiera Gourmand (vanilla, caramel)
By Kilian Gold Knight (honey)
Calvin Klein Dark Obsession (vanilla), CK Euphoria Amber Gold (honey)
Carolina Herrera 212 Glam (dark chocolate), Carolina Herrera CH (sugar)
Cartier l'Envol (honey)
Charriol Infinite Celtic Ultimate (dates)
Chopard Casran (dates)
Code Deco Tasman in Grey (maple syrup)
Cristiano Ronaldo Legacy (maple syrup)
Dame Chocolate Man (dark chocolate)
Diesel Fuel for Life (semi-gourmand)
Dolce & Gabbana The One Luminous Night (dates)
Eclectic Carte Blanche (cupcake)
English Laundry Tahitian Waters (brown sugar)
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength (candies)
Etat Libre d'Orange Vetiver (cream)
Frederick Malle Musc Ravageur (vanilla)
Giorgio Armani Stronger with You Intensely (toffee)
Guerlain Habit Rouge (vanilla, fruits), Guerlain HR Dress Code (praline), Guerlain l'Homme Ideal (cherry, almond)
Houbigant Figuier Noir (candied fruits)
Jean Paul Gaultier Scandal (caramel)
John Varvatos (dates)
Joop! Joop! (praline)
Kenzo Homme Fresh (candies)
Lacoste L.12.12 Noir (watermelon, chocolate)
Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin (licorice)
Marly Haltane (praline)
Matriarch Sacre Tabac Sucre (molasses)
Milton Lloyd Spirit of Heaven (caramel)
Nasomatto Pardon (dark chocolate)
O Boticario Egeo Beat (cereals), OB Egeo Bomb (caramel), OB Egeo Bomb Black (tiramisu), OB Lhotse Irresistivel (candies), OB The Blend Bourbon (creme brulee)
Oriflame Born to Fly (agave nectar)
Oriza Legrand Horizon (marmalade)
O.U.i. Individual Iconique 001 (brown sugar)
Paco Rabanne Pure XS Night (caramel), PR Black XS (praline), PR Black XS l'Aphrodisiaque (praline)
Playboy VIP (white chocolate)
Ralph Lauren Big Pony 2 (dark chocolate), RL Polo Supreme Leather (honey)
Roberto Cavalli (honey)
Rochas Man (vanilla)
Roccobarocco Last King (cream)
Royal Barber Golden Blade (candied fruits)
Salvatore Ferragamo Uomo (coffee, chocolate, vanilla, candies)
Swedoft Spice Surprise (dates)
Swiss Arabian Suroor (marmalade)
Thera Cosmeticos Amatus (frosting), TC Hazor (brown sugar)
Thierry Mugler A*Men (vanilla, chocolate, coffee), TMA Pure Havane (honey), TM Angel (dark chocolate)
Tommy Hilfiger 10 (cotton candy)
Valentino Uomo (vanilla, dark chocolate), VU Born in Roma Yellow Dream (gingerbread)
Yardley Gentleman Classic (white chocolate)
Zara Scent #2 (dark chocolate), Zara Tobacco Rich Warm Addictive (honey)
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Thank you, Paul.
You're welcome. And I only finished page 2
.Bill might recall that in a different forum I do a "Throwback Thursday" shave on....what day is that, Bill?
. I list the origin of each soap and A.S. I use. This is a huge help for my Thursdays.....
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Pheromones
A pheromone is a chemical (or a small set of compounds) that an organism produces which affects or changes the behavior of another creature of the same species. Pheromones are similar to hormones (and are sometimes termed ectohormones), but they are secreted and act outside the body. They are used by most organisms, from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes such as mammals. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. Some pheromones have an odor, but many do not have any discernable scent.
Etymology
The word pheromone was coined in 1959 by Peter Karlson and Martin Martin Lüscher, based on the Greek φερω pheroo ('I carry') and ὁρμων hormon ('stimulating'). They proposed this term shortly after the biochemist Adolf Butenandt characterized the first such chemical (bombykol), released by the female silkworm to attract mates.
Animal Pheromones
Animals produce pheromones to trigger many types of behaviors, including raising an alarm, signaling a food trail, stimulating sexual arousal, telling other female insects to lay their eggs elsewhere, delineating a territory, strengthening a bond between mother and offspring, and warning another animal to back away. These chemical messengers produce the physiological changes through effects on neurocircuits, hormone-mediated changes, and effect on inflammatory signaling and the immune system of the recipient.
There are four main functional types of pheromones:
Releasers - These elicit an immediate, rapid, and reliable response, and they are usually linked to sexual attraction and being drawn to a potential mate.
Primers - These take longer to provoke a response and can alter another animal's hormone levels, sometimes influencing reproductive or developmental physiology that is involved in puberty, menstrual cycles, and pregnancy.
Signalers - These provide genetic clues or information about an individual's social status or health. For example, they may help a mother to recognize her newborn by scent and might play a role in early attachment behavior.
Modulators - Typically found in sweat, modulators can alter or synchronize bodily functions, mental state, or mood, for example making a female more or less tense or affecting her focus.
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
Experts say that the pheromone system of insects, which have simple stereotyped behaviors, is much easier to understand than that of mammals. It is believed that mammals detect pheromones through an organ in the nose called the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which lies at the base of the nasal septum and communicates with the brain hypothalamus. Olfactory processing of chemical signals like pheromones is the oldest of the senses, and it has been suggested that it serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses to signals of threat, sex, and dominance status among members of a species. For example, mice can distinguish close relatives from more distantly related individuals on the basis of scent signals, enabling them to avoid mating with close relative and to minimize deleterious inbreeding.
The VNO in humans is present in the fetus but appears to be atrophied or completely absent in adults; and it is thought that if humans do respond to hormones, most likely they do it through their normal olfactory system. Trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR) in the olfactory epithelium as as receptors that detect volatile odorants, apparently including certain pheromones. Studies suggest that the TAARs may mediate general attractive or aversive behavioral responses (such as responses to foul fishy odors).
Sources of Pheromones
In mammals, pheromones are produced through scent glands found all over the body, including the mouth, paws, and anus. Cosmetic biochemist Nausheen Qureshi says that human pheromones appear to be present in the form of sweat, saliva, and other bodily secretions. "So far, most scientific research on the topic has concentrated on sweat. Compounds within these secretions can be detected by smell, and they can influence the mindset of the detecting animal."
Researchers have been trying to find human sex pheromones for decades. Says Marina Barcenilla, perfumer and founder of AromAtom, "As mammals, it's possible that human pheromones could exist. However, none have been identified to date by any robust scientific research." Various chemicals have been investigated for pheromone actions in humans, but most well-controlled scientific studies have failed to show any compelling evidence. Research in the field has suffered from small sample sizes, publication bias, false positives, and poor methodology. According to George Preti, researcher at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, "That doesn't mean a human sex pheromone doesn't exist. It must means we haven't found one yet." Scientists have collected a lot of evidence for possible pheromone effects but have not definitively identified a single human pheromone yet.
Pheromone Research
Gustav Jäger (1832-1917), a German doctor and hygienist, is thought to have been the first modern scientist to put forward the idea of human pheromones, which he called anthropines. He said that they are lipophilic compounds associated with skin and follicles and that they mark the individual's signature odors.
An inherent difficulty in studying human pheromones is the need for cleanliness and minimizing of other odors. But in that context, experiments in humans have focused on three approaches to possible pheromones: axillary steroids, vaginal aliphatic acids, and stimulators of the VNO. Axillary steroids are produced by the testes, ovaries, apocrine glands such as the sweat glands, and adrenal glands. The fact that these change in activity during puberty suggests possible communication through odors.
Axillary steroids suggested as possible human pheromones include androstadienol, androstadienone, androstenol, androstenone, and androsterone. Androstenol appears to be a female pheromone, affecting the perception of attractiveness. Androstenone is postulated to be secreted only by males as an attractant for women, acting as a positive effector for their mood. Androstadienone seems to affect the limbic system, causing a positive reaction primarily in women, with improved mood and increased attention to emotional information.
A second approach is examining a class of aliphatic acids found in the vaginal fluids of mammals, called 'copulins.' They increase in quantity before ovulation, and in monkeys they are thought to be a sexual signal to the male. In humans, it is thought they they may have other purposes, but this has been studied extensively.
The human vomeronasal organ (VNO) has epithelia that may be able to serve as a chemical sensory organ, and a third area of study is looking at possible stimulators of the VNO. However, the genes that encode VNO receptors are nonfunctional in humans; and while there are sensory neurons present in the human VNO, there seems to be no connection between the VNO and the brain or central nervous system. So far there have been no experiments comparing perception in people with VNO tissue to perception of those lacking it.
Researchers at the University of Chicago claimed in 1971 to have linked the synchronization of women's menstrual cycles to unconscious odor cues. When they exposed a group of women to a scent of sweat from other women, their menstrual cycles either accelerated or slowed down, depending upon whether the perspiration was collected before, during, or after ovulation. The lead scientist was named Martha McClintock, and the phenomenon they described was called the 'McClintock effect.' However, recent analyses of the study have questioned the validity of its methodology.
One study from 2004 found that compounds like androstenone, which acts as a pheromone for pigs, are present in human sweat and urine. "So we know that humans give off body odor and that human bodies excrete substances that pigs find sexually stimulating," says Pamela Regan, a psychology professor who studies sexual and romantic attraction at California State University, Los Angeles. She continues, "Scientists have found that human infants, children, and adults are able to discriminate between other individuals on the basis of olfactory cures - we can tell each other apart using our noses." But whether human find androstenone or other secreted chemicals to be sexually stimulating or attracting is an unanswered question.
In 2005, gay men were found to prefer then scent of other gay men when given anonymous samples of sweat, while heterosexual men preferred the scent of women's sweat.
A small 2008 study looked at how the hormone AND (androstadienone, a progesterone derivative) affects women's feelings of attracting, setting up a speed-dating trial in which some women had AND applied to their upper lips first, while others had a non-hormone control solution applied. The results indicated that the women with AND rated the men they met as more attractive, the untreated women giving lower ratings. And a study published in Respirology in 2016 showed that AND caused swelling the tissues of female human noses, suggesting the possibility that it might be a functioning pheromone.
Androstadienone (AND), found in male sweat and semen, appears to affect mood and corisol levels, to activate brain areas linked to social cognition, and possibly to increase attraction. One study found that it increased cooperative behavior in males. According to some studies, androstenone, also secreted by males, may increase a woman's libido, especially if she is exposed to it close to the time of ovulation. However, other studies indicate a negative response of women to androstenone, which is present in oxidized or 'old' male sweat. Androstenol, which is present in 'fresh' male sweat, has been shown in trials to be attractive to both genders.
In March 2017, researchers published the results of an experiment in which they exposed participants to AND, another possible pheromone called estratetraenol (EST, present in female urine), or a control and then asked them to do a task involving assessment of gender, attractiveness, or unfaithfulness of people whose faces they saw in pictures. No differences were found in the reactions of the study subjects. Says evolutionary biologist Leigh Simmons, the study's lead author, "I've convince myself that AND and EST are not worth pursuing." And Tristam Wyatt, senior researcher in zoology at Oxford University, says, "Those, I'm afraid, are junk. Humans may well have pheromones, but AND and EST haven't met this more pragmatic definition." But Wen Zhou, a behavioral psychologist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, contends that they may be pheromones: "My major concern with the experiments in this study is that they were not rigorously designed and conducted." And McClintock believes that the findings only negate overly simple view of AND and EST. She still thinks the chemicals may affect behavior, but in a more nuanced way than most people think, saying, "There's no doubt that this compound, even in tiny amounts, affects how the brain functions."
Scientists have attempted to ascertain if our noses can detect sexual or romantic genetic compatibility. Dr. Wyatt notes a study from 1995 by biologist Claus Wedekind that found that when women were given sweaty T-shirts worn by different men, they were drawn to those from men who were most genetically different from them. But he and other scientists remain skeptical. Says Wyatt, "It's a story that often comes up around Valentine's Day. And there are a couple of companies who will analyze your T-shirt or do all sorts of things, but there's no strong science behind it, sadly." Says neuroscientist Charles Wysocki of Monell, "They don't have any history in the biomedical literature - they just fell out of the sky."
In another approach, Noam Sobel, a neurobiologist at the Wiezmann Institute in Israel, had women watch a sad movie scene, collected their tears, and placed samples of the fluid under men's noses. The tears fluid reduce the men's sexual arousal and testosterone levels, apparently sending a type of message saying that romance was 'off the table.' Sobel has also shown that if the hand of a woman volunteer is shaken by a researcher, who then leaves the room, after a few moments the volunteer often brings her hand to her face and sniffs, somewhat like dogs inspect each other by smell.
Human Pheromones
Substances reputed to be human pheromones and frequently included among the listed ingredients of pheromone perfumes include epiandrosterone, alpha-androstano, androstadienone, and androstenone. However, perfume fragrances are not regulated by the FDA beyond ensuring that they are safe, so companies do not need to disclose all their ingredients. Says Kerry Hughes, an ethnobotanist and clinical herbalist in private practice and author of 'Botanicals With Benefits,' "If they just say it has pheromones, but there is no information on any company materials, the it seems suspect." A product may claim to contain pheromones, but it may actually not contain any - or even have any active ingredients at all. Even if the pheromones are real and animalic, they may be sourced from other animals such as dogs or pigs rather than being human. In addition there are many obstacles to synthesizing human hormones to use in a perfume, so most commercial pheromone products actually use plant compounds to reproduce the desired effects. Studies have shown that perfume manufacturers usually do not follow any scientific protocols in the design and fabrication of pheromone perfumes.
Compounding the confusion is the fact that there are only very limited studies on whether synthetic pheromones used in commercial fragrances have the same level of influence that one's natural secretions produce. Barcenilla notes, "This could be because the pheromones you produce are far and wide, and contain a huge number of chemicals and substances that lead to a specific response. It is very personalized." Perfumer Geza Schön of Escentric Molecules is skeptical of synthetic perfume pheromones: "Pheromone perfumes just do not work, because we don't have synthesized pheromones which we can use as ingredients." And Regan has noted that human attraction is much more complex than in other mammals: "We don't require the presence of a particular hormone or chemical secretion to feel desire, to want sex, or to become attracted to another member of the species. I'd recommend simply buying any fragrance that appeals to you - and if your partner likes it, too, that's a bonus." Researchers involved in a number of studies have noted that their results were 'situation-dependent,' meaning that the role of pheromones, if any, might depend on other personal or environmental factors. Says Craig Roberts, a psychologist at the University of Stirling in the UK, "We're interested in personality, sense of humor, reliability as a partner, and a host of other things. Detecting a small effect is going to be difficult."
Controversies
In his 2010 book 'The Great Pheromone Myth,' Richard Doty, director of the University of Pennsylvania's Smell and Taste Center, argues that the concept of pheromone initially introduced by Karlson and Lüscher is too simple for mammalian systems, failing to take into account learning and the context-dependence of chemo-sensation. He is especially critical of the idea of human pheromones. According to Doty, the functions of pheromones are to produce unlearned, reflexive, and innate responses. He says that the chemical stimuli to which mammals respond are typically combinations of many compounds, which are sensed in complex social situations. He concluded that human pheromones are a myth that is driven in part by the economics of what he calls the 'junk-science industry of pheromone-perfumes, pheromone-soaps, and pheromone cosmetics,' which he says arose from misunderstood research with other mammals. Although his book was received well generally by the scientific community, some have said he does not consider some of the more recent scientific studies that conflict with his views.
Some have complained that wearing a pheromone perfume, despite appearing to be pretty harmless, is a form of cheating, a way of 'hacking' another person's senses with the intention of attracting them without their will. But Talbott says, "The bottom line is that no type of pheromone can force someone into a mood state that they don't want to be in." Experts suggest that if human pheromones do exist, their effects are probably very subtle and would not override a person's will or inclinations. Real pheromones could have an effect on someone who is already emotionally close to you, but chances are very small that the kind of substances found in a commercial spray would even reach a stranger, much less make them attracted to you. Sexuality researcher Rebecca Alvarez Story notes, "From a biological perspective, smell is an arousal system and contributes to sexual attraction, stimulation, and satisfaction. If an individual wants to be sexually appealing, the most direct approach is to practice good hygiene, eliminate any repulsive odors, and use alluring fragrances."
Pheromone Trend
TikTok has gained a reputation for launching fragrances to viral fame with claims of sexual or romantic effects. IntiMD's Pure Instinct Crave and Heaux Cosmietics scent Habitué Provocateur have sold out repeatedly thanks to the 'pheromones' reported online to be included in their formulas. Crave is claimed to contain 'pheromones imported from Italy,' while Habitué Provocateur lists copulins (chemicals secreted in the vagina during menstruation) and the testicular neuro-steroid androstenol among its ingredients. Researchers, however, have not confirmed the effects of these substances. Says Dr. Wyatt, "The challenge is, humans are very smelly. And research of anything to do with attraction, particularly sexual attraction, is really poor. Apart from the ethics committees, humans are difficult animals to work with. We think too much, we learn too quickly. Because we're mammals, we might well have pheromones, but none have been found yet." He continues that while copulins and androstenol might be pheromones, the research is not definitive. "It's actually a problem of publication bias. People only publish when they find something positive. It fits into the wider story of the whole problem of psychology: Things that are really nice ideas may, in small experiments, show an effect. But when you try to repeat it, you find there actually wasn't anything there."
Says Wyatt of the TikTok phenomenon involving these products, "It's simply new audiences being found, and the marketing keeping up with the times." According to Eden Campbell, strategy manager at ad agency Movers+Shakers, TikTok's algorithm is able to bring in audiences who were not previously immersed in the fragrance world: "The difference with TikTok is that the 'For You' page starts serving things up that you never thought you would be interested in. At the end of the day, especially if you're not in the perfume space, you don't really care about the high note, the middle note, the low note, the 'smells like thing thing you've never heard of.' It's about the results you're getting. Gen Z is the first generation whose physical and digital lives are intertwined. And what we've seen is so many of these viral TikTok products are rooted in experiences that are very sensory-focused." The fact that TikTokkers don't thoroughly describe perfume notes is not a drawback, but rather precisely what helps the products go viral. "TikTok is really becoming this evolution in a much larger way. And so much of what sells beauty products is people speaking to the FOMO (fear of missing out) effect," she adds. "Perfume is invisible. Creating this hype, the sort of thing that you can't explain unless you have it, I think is a big aspect of why the perfumes have gone viral."
Amanda Carr, fragrance trend forecaster, agrees: "If you're young and beautiful and after a mate, wearing perfume becomes all about attracting someone with how you smell. But the idea that a magical 'pheromone' ingredient can make you irresistible is something we'd all be interested in. We crave kindness, happiness, and comfort from other humans because many of us were deprived of it during lockdown. For anyone who lost their sense of smell during COVID, not to be able to smell the comforting scent of your own home, or your partner, or family, can be devastating and isolating." Carr suggests that popular pheromone fragrances probably use a good quantity of musk notes: "Think soft, mineralesque, warm, comforting, and familiar. Perfumers have a huge array of these musk notes they can use in fragrance, and they often appear as the base notes because they hang around on the skin for a long time. The smell of warm skin is very familiar and appealing."
Anyone with a TikTok account also could do a quick online search and find out that the existence of human pheromones is still debated and that the promises made by perfumes are likely unsubstantiated, but most people don't, because the fantasy of guaranteed love or sex is too attractive to pass up. Says Wyatt, "It goes back to the hope. We're looking for somebody. And if this is going to increase the chance of finding somebody, then that's a very attractive proposition." According to perfume and style blogger Chriselle Lim, "The idea of another person's scent is very intimate and understandable. I think collectively, we are all in a place where we desire security comfort, and the warmth of someone we love."
Barcenilla believes that pheromone perfumes are a fad, but she says that believing in their effects provides a psychological boost, which may be able to kickstart an unconscious positive behavioral change in the wear, perhaps leading to an unexpected response from others. This result, a sort of placebo effect, may lead one to feel or act sexier or be more outgoing. According to Shawn Talbott, biochemist and author, "Pheromones do have effects on ourselves and on other people in close proximity. So yes, they do work in that sense. But they don't 'work' in the way that most of those ads say. For instance, the hormone oxytocin has been shown to cause relaxation and connection between people. That's why it's commonly known as the 'cuddle chemical' or the 'bonding hormone.' We know that plant compounds, like lavender and chamomile, can be used to reduce stress and enhance relaxation. So if stress is interfering with mood and suppressing libido, then we can use 'plant pheromones' to reduce stress. And if you're less stressed, then maybe your sex drive increases a bit."
Scent Magnifiers
Schön says that certain fragrances can intensify our own personal scents, claiming that "Escentric Molecules 01 would probably be the only perfume you could say has a pheromonic effect on human beings. It's why so many people in the streets walk up to someone wearing it." Its ingredients include Iso E Super (warm and woody), ambroxan (salty and skinlike), and cashmeran (musky and spicy).
Some fragrances, such Phlur Missing Person, are marketed as being 'skin scents,' claiming to allow one's own aroma to come through the scent. Pure Instinct Crave is similarly promoted for its ability to 'blend with your skin pH,' promising a fragrance that is both universal and one-of-a-kind for each wearer. Says Firmenich perfumer Dora Baghriche, "It is clean and dirty at the same time. It is sexy and transparent at the same time. So in fact, it's a matter of contradiction when you create a skin scent. And that's the beauty of it. Our pHs are not neutral. Even if we don't wear clothes, there's the pH of our skin. Our culture, environment, what we eat, where we live - all this influences the formula of our skin, the base, and the smell of our skin. A fragrance will react with that. It's like an outfit. The shape of a person, the behavior, influences everything." Carr says, "They all smell like a better version of our own skin." Skin scents, usually smelling warm, familiar, and vaguely salty (like the faintest hint of sweat), often rely on musk to create an aroma that is both clean and animalic. Some experts think that skin scents are or will be overtaking pheromone perfumes in popularity.
Pheromone Advertising
Advertising of pheromone compounds is aggressive and demonstrates little attention to facts or truth. Some commercial pheromone products are aimed specifically at men or women, some are advertised as unisex, and a few are marketed for gay men. There are 'unscented' pheromone sprays that can be used in combination with one's regular fragrances.
And single pheromone chemicals are marketed, some generically, for those who believe in the efficacy of a particular one.
Some companies, including major ones, advertise other personal care pheromone products, such as bath soap, body wash, shampoo, shaving cream, aftershave, deodorant, or whole collections of grooming items.
Pheromone Products in the Future
Some experts predict that the use of commercially synthesized human pheromones in perfume products will become possible in the near future and will produce a kind of revolution in the industry, becoming a paradigm for most fragrances and moving perfumery from the realm of art to that of science. Researchers must strive to systematically catalogue the chemical contents of bodily secretions, which is very challenging for many reasons, including the fact that the compounds may be present at extremely low levels or in quantities that vary over time. Roberts has begun working with a highly sensitive technology known as proton-transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF), which can detect very small changes in airborne odorant chemicals in real time and may facilitate identification of true human pheromone molecules.
Popular and heavily advertised pheromone colognes for men include:
Alfamarker (various)
AlphaMale
Botanic Tree 100 Degrees Celsius
Do Me Seduce Her
Pherolec Androstenonum Max
Aromolon (various)
Love Potion Charisma
FragrantShare Cologne
Love Scent
Nexus Pheromones
Pherazone for Men
PheromoneXS (various)
Pherone Formula D-17X
Pure Instinct Roll-On
RawChemistry Midnight, RawChemistry Pheromone Cologne
S1ck Alpha Q
True Pheromones (various)
Virochemistry (various)
A pheromone is a chemical (or a small set of compounds) that an organism produces which affects or changes the behavior of another creature of the same species. Pheromones are similar to hormones (and are sometimes termed ectohormones), but they are secreted and act outside the body. They are used by most organisms, from basic unicellular prokaryotes to complex multicellular eukaryotes such as mammals. Their use among insects has been particularly well documented. Some pheromones have an odor, but many do not have any discernable scent.
Etymology
The word pheromone was coined in 1959 by Peter Karlson and Martin Martin Lüscher, based on the Greek φερω pheroo ('I carry') and ὁρμων hormon ('stimulating'). They proposed this term shortly after the biochemist Adolf Butenandt characterized the first such chemical (bombykol), released by the female silkworm to attract mates.
Animal Pheromones
Animals produce pheromones to trigger many types of behaviors, including raising an alarm, signaling a food trail, stimulating sexual arousal, telling other female insects to lay their eggs elsewhere, delineating a territory, strengthening a bond between mother and offspring, and warning another animal to back away. These chemical messengers produce the physiological changes through effects on neurocircuits, hormone-mediated changes, and effect on inflammatory signaling and the immune system of the recipient.
There are four main functional types of pheromones:
Releasers - These elicit an immediate, rapid, and reliable response, and they are usually linked to sexual attraction and being drawn to a potential mate.
Primers - These take longer to provoke a response and can alter another animal's hormone levels, sometimes influencing reproductive or developmental physiology that is involved in puberty, menstrual cycles, and pregnancy.
Signalers - These provide genetic clues or information about an individual's social status or health. For example, they may help a mother to recognize her newborn by scent and might play a role in early attachment behavior.
Modulators - Typically found in sweat, modulators can alter or synchronize bodily functions, mental state, or mood, for example making a female more or less tense or affecting her focus.
Vomeronasal Organ (VNO)
Experts say that the pheromone system of insects, which have simple stereotyped behaviors, is much easier to understand than that of mammals. It is believed that mammals detect pheromones through an organ in the nose called the vomeronasal organ (VNO), which lies at the base of the nasal septum and communicates with the brain hypothalamus. Olfactory processing of chemical signals like pheromones is the oldest of the senses, and it has been suggested that it serves survival by generating appropriate behavioral responses to signals of threat, sex, and dominance status among members of a species. For example, mice can distinguish close relatives from more distantly related individuals on the basis of scent signals, enabling them to avoid mating with close relative and to minimize deleterious inbreeding.
The VNO in humans is present in the fetus but appears to be atrophied or completely absent in adults; and it is thought that if humans do respond to hormones, most likely they do it through their normal olfactory system. Trace amine-associated receptors (TAAR) in the olfactory epithelium as as receptors that detect volatile odorants, apparently including certain pheromones. Studies suggest that the TAARs may mediate general attractive or aversive behavioral responses (such as responses to foul fishy odors).
Sources of Pheromones
In mammals, pheromones are produced through scent glands found all over the body, including the mouth, paws, and anus. Cosmetic biochemist Nausheen Qureshi says that human pheromones appear to be present in the form of sweat, saliva, and other bodily secretions. "So far, most scientific research on the topic has concentrated on sweat. Compounds within these secretions can be detected by smell, and they can influence the mindset of the detecting animal."
Researchers have been trying to find human sex pheromones for decades. Says Marina Barcenilla, perfumer and founder of AromAtom, "As mammals, it's possible that human pheromones could exist. However, none have been identified to date by any robust scientific research." Various chemicals have been investigated for pheromone actions in humans, but most well-controlled scientific studies have failed to show any compelling evidence. Research in the field has suffered from small sample sizes, publication bias, false positives, and poor methodology. According to George Preti, researcher at the Monell Chemical Senses Center in Philadelphia, "That doesn't mean a human sex pheromone doesn't exist. It must means we haven't found one yet." Scientists have collected a lot of evidence for possible pheromone effects but have not definitively identified a single human pheromone yet.
Pheromone Research
Gustav Jäger (1832-1917), a German doctor and hygienist, is thought to have been the first modern scientist to put forward the idea of human pheromones, which he called anthropines. He said that they are lipophilic compounds associated with skin and follicles and that they mark the individual's signature odors.
An inherent difficulty in studying human pheromones is the need for cleanliness and minimizing of other odors. But in that context, experiments in humans have focused on three approaches to possible pheromones: axillary steroids, vaginal aliphatic acids, and stimulators of the VNO. Axillary steroids are produced by the testes, ovaries, apocrine glands such as the sweat glands, and adrenal glands. The fact that these change in activity during puberty suggests possible communication through odors.
Axillary steroids suggested as possible human pheromones include androstadienol, androstadienone, androstenol, androstenone, and androsterone. Androstenol appears to be a female pheromone, affecting the perception of attractiveness. Androstenone is postulated to be secreted only by males as an attractant for women, acting as a positive effector for their mood. Androstadienone seems to affect the limbic system, causing a positive reaction primarily in women, with improved mood and increased attention to emotional information.
A second approach is examining a class of aliphatic acids found in the vaginal fluids of mammals, called 'copulins.' They increase in quantity before ovulation, and in monkeys they are thought to be a sexual signal to the male. In humans, it is thought they they may have other purposes, but this has been studied extensively.
The human vomeronasal organ (VNO) has epithelia that may be able to serve as a chemical sensory organ, and a third area of study is looking at possible stimulators of the VNO. However, the genes that encode VNO receptors are nonfunctional in humans; and while there are sensory neurons present in the human VNO, there seems to be no connection between the VNO and the brain or central nervous system. So far there have been no experiments comparing perception in people with VNO tissue to perception of those lacking it.
Researchers at the University of Chicago claimed in 1971 to have linked the synchronization of women's menstrual cycles to unconscious odor cues. When they exposed a group of women to a scent of sweat from other women, their menstrual cycles either accelerated or slowed down, depending upon whether the perspiration was collected before, during, or after ovulation. The lead scientist was named Martha McClintock, and the phenomenon they described was called the 'McClintock effect.' However, recent analyses of the study have questioned the validity of its methodology.
One study from 2004 found that compounds like androstenone, which acts as a pheromone for pigs, are present in human sweat and urine. "So we know that humans give off body odor and that human bodies excrete substances that pigs find sexually stimulating," says Pamela Regan, a psychology professor who studies sexual and romantic attraction at California State University, Los Angeles. She continues, "Scientists have found that human infants, children, and adults are able to discriminate between other individuals on the basis of olfactory cures - we can tell each other apart using our noses." But whether human find androstenone or other secreted chemicals to be sexually stimulating or attracting is an unanswered question.
In 2005, gay men were found to prefer then scent of other gay men when given anonymous samples of sweat, while heterosexual men preferred the scent of women's sweat.
A small 2008 study looked at how the hormone AND (androstadienone, a progesterone derivative) affects women's feelings of attracting, setting up a speed-dating trial in which some women had AND applied to their upper lips first, while others had a non-hormone control solution applied. The results indicated that the women with AND rated the men they met as more attractive, the untreated women giving lower ratings. And a study published in Respirology in 2016 showed that AND caused swelling the tissues of female human noses, suggesting the possibility that it might be a functioning pheromone.
Androstadienone (AND), found in male sweat and semen, appears to affect mood and corisol levels, to activate brain areas linked to social cognition, and possibly to increase attraction. One study found that it increased cooperative behavior in males. According to some studies, androstenone, also secreted by males, may increase a woman's libido, especially if she is exposed to it close to the time of ovulation. However, other studies indicate a negative response of women to androstenone, which is present in oxidized or 'old' male sweat. Androstenol, which is present in 'fresh' male sweat, has been shown in trials to be attractive to both genders.
In March 2017, researchers published the results of an experiment in which they exposed participants to AND, another possible pheromone called estratetraenol (EST, present in female urine), or a control and then asked them to do a task involving assessment of gender, attractiveness, or unfaithfulness of people whose faces they saw in pictures. No differences were found in the reactions of the study subjects. Says evolutionary biologist Leigh Simmons, the study's lead author, "I've convince myself that AND and EST are not worth pursuing." And Tristam Wyatt, senior researcher in zoology at Oxford University, says, "Those, I'm afraid, are junk. Humans may well have pheromones, but AND and EST haven't met this more pragmatic definition." But Wen Zhou, a behavioral psychologist at the Chinese Academy of Sciences in Beijing, contends that they may be pheromones: "My major concern with the experiments in this study is that they were not rigorously designed and conducted." And McClintock believes that the findings only negate overly simple view of AND and EST. She still thinks the chemicals may affect behavior, but in a more nuanced way than most people think, saying, "There's no doubt that this compound, even in tiny amounts, affects how the brain functions."
Scientists have attempted to ascertain if our noses can detect sexual or romantic genetic compatibility. Dr. Wyatt notes a study from 1995 by biologist Claus Wedekind that found that when women were given sweaty T-shirts worn by different men, they were drawn to those from men who were most genetically different from them. But he and other scientists remain skeptical. Says Wyatt, "It's a story that often comes up around Valentine's Day. And there are a couple of companies who will analyze your T-shirt or do all sorts of things, but there's no strong science behind it, sadly." Says neuroscientist Charles Wysocki of Monell, "They don't have any history in the biomedical literature - they just fell out of the sky."
In another approach, Noam Sobel, a neurobiologist at the Wiezmann Institute in Israel, had women watch a sad movie scene, collected their tears, and placed samples of the fluid under men's noses. The tears fluid reduce the men's sexual arousal and testosterone levels, apparently sending a type of message saying that romance was 'off the table.' Sobel has also shown that if the hand of a woman volunteer is shaken by a researcher, who then leaves the room, after a few moments the volunteer often brings her hand to her face and sniffs, somewhat like dogs inspect each other by smell.
Human Pheromones
Substances reputed to be human pheromones and frequently included among the listed ingredients of pheromone perfumes include epiandrosterone, alpha-androstano, androstadienone, and androstenone. However, perfume fragrances are not regulated by the FDA beyond ensuring that they are safe, so companies do not need to disclose all their ingredients. Says Kerry Hughes, an ethnobotanist and clinical herbalist in private practice and author of 'Botanicals With Benefits,' "If they just say it has pheromones, but there is no information on any company materials, the it seems suspect." A product may claim to contain pheromones, but it may actually not contain any - or even have any active ingredients at all. Even if the pheromones are real and animalic, they may be sourced from other animals such as dogs or pigs rather than being human. In addition there are many obstacles to synthesizing human hormones to use in a perfume, so most commercial pheromone products actually use plant compounds to reproduce the desired effects. Studies have shown that perfume manufacturers usually do not follow any scientific protocols in the design and fabrication of pheromone perfumes.
Compounding the confusion is the fact that there are only very limited studies on whether synthetic pheromones used in commercial fragrances have the same level of influence that one's natural secretions produce. Barcenilla notes, "This could be because the pheromones you produce are far and wide, and contain a huge number of chemicals and substances that lead to a specific response. It is very personalized." Perfumer Geza Schön of Escentric Molecules is skeptical of synthetic perfume pheromones: "Pheromone perfumes just do not work, because we don't have synthesized pheromones which we can use as ingredients." And Regan has noted that human attraction is much more complex than in other mammals: "We don't require the presence of a particular hormone or chemical secretion to feel desire, to want sex, or to become attracted to another member of the species. I'd recommend simply buying any fragrance that appeals to you - and if your partner likes it, too, that's a bonus." Researchers involved in a number of studies have noted that their results were 'situation-dependent,' meaning that the role of pheromones, if any, might depend on other personal or environmental factors. Says Craig Roberts, a psychologist at the University of Stirling in the UK, "We're interested in personality, sense of humor, reliability as a partner, and a host of other things. Detecting a small effect is going to be difficult."
Controversies
In his 2010 book 'The Great Pheromone Myth,' Richard Doty, director of the University of Pennsylvania's Smell and Taste Center, argues that the concept of pheromone initially introduced by Karlson and Lüscher is too simple for mammalian systems, failing to take into account learning and the context-dependence of chemo-sensation. He is especially critical of the idea of human pheromones. According to Doty, the functions of pheromones are to produce unlearned, reflexive, and innate responses. He says that the chemical stimuli to which mammals respond are typically combinations of many compounds, which are sensed in complex social situations. He concluded that human pheromones are a myth that is driven in part by the economics of what he calls the 'junk-science industry of pheromone-perfumes, pheromone-soaps, and pheromone cosmetics,' which he says arose from misunderstood research with other mammals. Although his book was received well generally by the scientific community, some have said he does not consider some of the more recent scientific studies that conflict with his views.
Some have complained that wearing a pheromone perfume, despite appearing to be pretty harmless, is a form of cheating, a way of 'hacking' another person's senses with the intention of attracting them without their will. But Talbott says, "The bottom line is that no type of pheromone can force someone into a mood state that they don't want to be in." Experts suggest that if human pheromones do exist, their effects are probably very subtle and would not override a person's will or inclinations. Real pheromones could have an effect on someone who is already emotionally close to you, but chances are very small that the kind of substances found in a commercial spray would even reach a stranger, much less make them attracted to you. Sexuality researcher Rebecca Alvarez Story notes, "From a biological perspective, smell is an arousal system and contributes to sexual attraction, stimulation, and satisfaction. If an individual wants to be sexually appealing, the most direct approach is to practice good hygiene, eliminate any repulsive odors, and use alluring fragrances."
Pheromone Trend
TikTok has gained a reputation for launching fragrances to viral fame with claims of sexual or romantic effects. IntiMD's Pure Instinct Crave and Heaux Cosmietics scent Habitué Provocateur have sold out repeatedly thanks to the 'pheromones' reported online to be included in their formulas. Crave is claimed to contain 'pheromones imported from Italy,' while Habitué Provocateur lists copulins (chemicals secreted in the vagina during menstruation) and the testicular neuro-steroid androstenol among its ingredients. Researchers, however, have not confirmed the effects of these substances. Says Dr. Wyatt, "The challenge is, humans are very smelly. And research of anything to do with attraction, particularly sexual attraction, is really poor. Apart from the ethics committees, humans are difficult animals to work with. We think too much, we learn too quickly. Because we're mammals, we might well have pheromones, but none have been found yet." He continues that while copulins and androstenol might be pheromones, the research is not definitive. "It's actually a problem of publication bias. People only publish when they find something positive. It fits into the wider story of the whole problem of psychology: Things that are really nice ideas may, in small experiments, show an effect. But when you try to repeat it, you find there actually wasn't anything there."
Says Wyatt of the TikTok phenomenon involving these products, "It's simply new audiences being found, and the marketing keeping up with the times." According to Eden Campbell, strategy manager at ad agency Movers+Shakers, TikTok's algorithm is able to bring in audiences who were not previously immersed in the fragrance world: "The difference with TikTok is that the 'For You' page starts serving things up that you never thought you would be interested in. At the end of the day, especially if you're not in the perfume space, you don't really care about the high note, the middle note, the low note, the 'smells like thing thing you've never heard of.' It's about the results you're getting. Gen Z is the first generation whose physical and digital lives are intertwined. And what we've seen is so many of these viral TikTok products are rooted in experiences that are very sensory-focused." The fact that TikTokkers don't thoroughly describe perfume notes is not a drawback, but rather precisely what helps the products go viral. "TikTok is really becoming this evolution in a much larger way. And so much of what sells beauty products is people speaking to the FOMO (fear of missing out) effect," she adds. "Perfume is invisible. Creating this hype, the sort of thing that you can't explain unless you have it, I think is a big aspect of why the perfumes have gone viral."
Amanda Carr, fragrance trend forecaster, agrees: "If you're young and beautiful and after a mate, wearing perfume becomes all about attracting someone with how you smell. But the idea that a magical 'pheromone' ingredient can make you irresistible is something we'd all be interested in. We crave kindness, happiness, and comfort from other humans because many of us were deprived of it during lockdown. For anyone who lost their sense of smell during COVID, not to be able to smell the comforting scent of your own home, or your partner, or family, can be devastating and isolating." Carr suggests that popular pheromone fragrances probably use a good quantity of musk notes: "Think soft, mineralesque, warm, comforting, and familiar. Perfumers have a huge array of these musk notes they can use in fragrance, and they often appear as the base notes because they hang around on the skin for a long time. The smell of warm skin is very familiar and appealing."
Anyone with a TikTok account also could do a quick online search and find out that the existence of human pheromones is still debated and that the promises made by perfumes are likely unsubstantiated, but most people don't, because the fantasy of guaranteed love or sex is too attractive to pass up. Says Wyatt, "It goes back to the hope. We're looking for somebody. And if this is going to increase the chance of finding somebody, then that's a very attractive proposition." According to perfume and style blogger Chriselle Lim, "The idea of another person's scent is very intimate and understandable. I think collectively, we are all in a place where we desire security comfort, and the warmth of someone we love."
Barcenilla believes that pheromone perfumes are a fad, but she says that believing in their effects provides a psychological boost, which may be able to kickstart an unconscious positive behavioral change in the wear, perhaps leading to an unexpected response from others. This result, a sort of placebo effect, may lead one to feel or act sexier or be more outgoing. According to Shawn Talbott, biochemist and author, "Pheromones do have effects on ourselves and on other people in close proximity. So yes, they do work in that sense. But they don't 'work' in the way that most of those ads say. For instance, the hormone oxytocin has been shown to cause relaxation and connection between people. That's why it's commonly known as the 'cuddle chemical' or the 'bonding hormone.' We know that plant compounds, like lavender and chamomile, can be used to reduce stress and enhance relaxation. So if stress is interfering with mood and suppressing libido, then we can use 'plant pheromones' to reduce stress. And if you're less stressed, then maybe your sex drive increases a bit."
Scent Magnifiers
Schön says that certain fragrances can intensify our own personal scents, claiming that "Escentric Molecules 01 would probably be the only perfume you could say has a pheromonic effect on human beings. It's why so many people in the streets walk up to someone wearing it." Its ingredients include Iso E Super (warm and woody), ambroxan (salty and skinlike), and cashmeran (musky and spicy).
Some fragrances, such Phlur Missing Person, are marketed as being 'skin scents,' claiming to allow one's own aroma to come through the scent. Pure Instinct Crave is similarly promoted for its ability to 'blend with your skin pH,' promising a fragrance that is both universal and one-of-a-kind for each wearer. Says Firmenich perfumer Dora Baghriche, "It is clean and dirty at the same time. It is sexy and transparent at the same time. So in fact, it's a matter of contradiction when you create a skin scent. And that's the beauty of it. Our pHs are not neutral. Even if we don't wear clothes, there's the pH of our skin. Our culture, environment, what we eat, where we live - all this influences the formula of our skin, the base, and the smell of our skin. A fragrance will react with that. It's like an outfit. The shape of a person, the behavior, influences everything." Carr says, "They all smell like a better version of our own skin." Skin scents, usually smelling warm, familiar, and vaguely salty (like the faintest hint of sweat), often rely on musk to create an aroma that is both clean and animalic. Some experts think that skin scents are or will be overtaking pheromone perfumes in popularity.
Pheromone Advertising
Advertising of pheromone compounds is aggressive and demonstrates little attention to facts or truth. Some commercial pheromone products are aimed specifically at men or women, some are advertised as unisex, and a few are marketed for gay men. There are 'unscented' pheromone sprays that can be used in combination with one's regular fragrances.
And single pheromone chemicals are marketed, some generically, for those who believe in the efficacy of a particular one.
Some companies, including major ones, advertise other personal care pheromone products, such as bath soap, body wash, shampoo, shaving cream, aftershave, deodorant, or whole collections of grooming items.
Pheromone Products in the Future
Some experts predict that the use of commercially synthesized human pheromones in perfume products will become possible in the near future and will produce a kind of revolution in the industry, becoming a paradigm for most fragrances and moving perfumery from the realm of art to that of science. Researchers must strive to systematically catalogue the chemical contents of bodily secretions, which is very challenging for many reasons, including the fact that the compounds may be present at extremely low levels or in quantities that vary over time. Roberts has begun working with a highly sensitive technology known as proton-transfer reaction time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PTR-TOF), which can detect very small changes in airborne odorant chemicals in real time and may facilitate identification of true human pheromone molecules.
Popular and heavily advertised pheromone colognes for men include:
Alfamarker (various)
AlphaMale
Botanic Tree 100 Degrees Celsius
Do Me Seduce Her
Pherolec Androstenonum Max
Aromolon (various)
Love Potion Charisma
FragrantShare Cologne
Love Scent
Nexus Pheromones
Pherazone for Men
PheromoneXS (various)
Pherone Formula D-17X
Pure Instinct Roll-On
RawChemistry Midnight, RawChemistry Pheromone Cologne
S1ck Alpha Q
True Pheromones (various)
Virochemistry (various)
novicewetshaver
Sr. Shave Member
this thread is awsome!!!! thanks @Scuttlesoap for pointing me here. lots of good info!
We are blessed by @churchilllafemme and his expertise and knowledge! And his ability to write thoughtful posts!
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Thanks for the kind words. It's about time for me to post another one, I think.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Aloe Vera
Aloe vera is an evergreen, perennial, succulent plant species in the Liliaceae or Agavaceae family of the genus Aloe. The genus has around 500 species. DNA studies suggest that A. vera originated on the Arabian Peninsula. The species was introduced to China and southern Europe in the 17th century. It subsequently has become naturalized in North Africa, Sudan and neighboring countries, Spain, Portugal, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, and the Madeira Islands. It now grows wild in many tropical, semi-tropical, and arid climates around the world; it is considered to be invasive in some regions.
Aloe is cultivated commercially mainly for use in topical skin products and treatments, but it also is grown for decorative purposes. There is large-scale agricultural production of it in Australia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico, India, Jamaica, Spain, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and the U.S.
Aloe Botany
Aloe vera's name derives from Greek and Latin, aloe of uncertain origin and meaning (but thought to come from an Arabic word meaning 'bitter and shiny substance') and vera meaning 'true.' Other frequently used common names vary with the region of its distribution, the major ones being Curacao Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Indian Aloe, and Jaffarabad Aloe. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.
Aloe vera is a stemless plant growing to 24-40 inches in height. The leaves are thick, fleshy, and green to grey-green in color, with pointed tips and a serrated margin lined with small white teeth. The leaves have four layers: an outer protective rind, a sap layer of fluid with a very bitter smell and taste which help to protect the plant from animals, an inner mucilage gel, and an inner amino acid gel. Some plant varieties have white flecks on the stem surfaces. The flowers, produced in summer, are pendant and yellow; and there is a triangular fruit that contains many seeds. Aloe forms a symbiosis with soil fungi, allowing it access to mineral nutrients. The plants are 95% water by weight.
Uses
Two substances from the plant, a clear gel and a yellow latex, are commonly used in commercial products, while the juice and essential oil (extract) are used less often. The gel, obtained by filleting of the mucilage layer of the leaf, typically is used to make topical medications for skin conditions such as burns, wounds, frostbite, rashes, psoriasis, cold sores, and dry skin. Aloe vera is frequently added to makeup, skin tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, shaving creams, and shampoos. The academic literature notes that its inclusion in hygiene products is mainly because of its reputed 'moisturizing emollient effect.' Its benefits are also said to include anti-inflammatory properties, support of collagen production, decreased burn and wound healing time and reduced scarring, antifungal and antibacterial action, and protection against the effects of radiation therapy.
A. vera has been used for centuries in traditional medicine as a skin treatment. There are records of its use as early as the fourth millennium BC in Egypt, and it is mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) and in other Greek texts. Alexander the Great was said to have sent his soldiers to the island of Socotra in order to grow aloe. It is discussed multiple times in the Bible, and it was known to have been grown and used by King Solomon. In the narratives of his travels, Marco Polo described many applications of the A. vera plant. Christopher Columbus brought A. vera on his cruises to heal ailments of his crew.
There is conflicting modern clinical evidence since the 1930s for the effectiveness and safety of aloe as a topical drug, but many experts believe that it does have benefits. Says, Dr. Manasija Rath, a physician at Penn Presbyterian Internal Medicine, "It contains anti-inflammatory chemical compounds - which reduce swelling - called anthraquinones. These chemical compounds promote healing and alleviate pain when applied to your skin. If your skin needs to heal, aloe may be a good option." And for cold sores, she says, "Fortunately aloe can soothe the pain from cold sores and make them heal faster by making your skin cells regenerate faster - which means healthy cells will grow to replace the infected ones." The identified components that are thought to be beneficial include vitamins, minerals, enzymes, sugars, lignin, sterols, amino acids, and salicylic acid. Topical use of Aloe became somewhat more standardized in the 1970s, when there was a breakthrough in processing techniques that allowed stabilization of the leaf gel to preserve its potency.
Use of topical aloe is not associated with significant side effects, and the majority of studies show it to be safe. But a few people can become allergic to Aloe vera, with skin reactions including redness and itching and sometimes systemic symptoms such as swelling of the face, lips, tongue, or throat and difficulty breathing.
The aloe latex, which contains the compound aloin, has been used in over-the-counter products to be ingested for relief of constipation, but in 2002 the FDA stopped regulating its use because manufacturers failed to provide necessary safety data. It is still marketed to treat constipation and for support of digestive system health, but it is not regulated and there is little scientific evidence for its effectiveness. When ingested in large amounts, A. vera can induce abdominal pain, diarrhea, or hepatitis; chronic ingestion may cause hematuria, weight loss, and cardiac or kidney disorders. Various state offices of environmental health have listed aloe extract as among 'chemicals known to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity.' Ingested aloe products also may have adverse interactions with prescription drugs, including those used to treat diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension, limiting the body's ability to absorb the medicines. Aloe extract is included commercially in beverages, yogurts, and dessert to improve their textures.
A. vera's succulence enables it to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for decorative home use in rockeries and other low water-use gardens. It is also often grown indoors in pots. In some areas, especially India and the northwestern Himalayas, it is planted as a hedge around houses.
Aloe Extract
Extract or essential oil from the leaves of aloe is obtained by cold pressing or by steam distillation under reduced pressure followed by chemical extraction and purging. As many as 120 aroma chemicals have been identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, with alcohols, terpenoids, and aldehydes primarily providing its faint scent.
Overall, the oil is said to have a very subtle, light, green, herbal, leafy, sappy scent. It is described as fresh, clean, aquatic, and 'chill' or 'transparent.' Aloe can sometimes leave a mild lingering suggestion of mint. It is among the mildest of fragrances and is included in perfume compositions primarily to highlight other notes, very rarely being used alone or as a dominant character. Aloe is said to blend especially well with lavender, white lily, clover, cucumber, aquatics, and citruses.
The few masculine fragrances with a relatively significant Aloe vera note include:
Avon Sidney, Avon Exploration
Azzaaro Chrome Apres Sport
Carlo Cool
Forever 25th Edition
Jaguar Fresh Man
Kashkha No. 7
Key West Aloe
Mühle Aloe Vera
Sante Naturkosmetik Homme Bio-Aloe
ScentOfLove Blue for Him[/i]
Aloe vera is an evergreen, perennial, succulent plant species in the Liliaceae or Agavaceae family of the genus Aloe. The genus has around 500 species. DNA studies suggest that A. vera originated on the Arabian Peninsula. The species was introduced to China and southern Europe in the 17th century. It subsequently has become naturalized in North Africa, Sudan and neighboring countries, Spain, Portugal, the Canary Islands, Cape Verde, and the Madeira Islands. It now grows wild in many tropical, semi-tropical, and arid climates around the world; it is considered to be invasive in some regions.
Aloe is cultivated commercially mainly for use in topical skin products and treatments, but it also is grown for decorative purposes. There is large-scale agricultural production of it in Australia, Cuba, the Dominican Republic, China, Mexico, India, Jamaica, Spain, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, and the U.S.
Aloe Botany
Aloe vera's name derives from Greek and Latin, aloe of uncertain origin and meaning (but thought to come from an Arabic word meaning 'bitter and shiny substance') and vera meaning 'true.' Other frequently used common names vary with the region of its distribution, the major ones being Curacao Aloe, Barbados Aloe, Indian Aloe, and Jaffarabad Aloe. The species was first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1753.
Aloe vera is a stemless plant growing to 24-40 inches in height. The leaves are thick, fleshy, and green to grey-green in color, with pointed tips and a serrated margin lined with small white teeth. The leaves have four layers: an outer protective rind, a sap layer of fluid with a very bitter smell and taste which help to protect the plant from animals, an inner mucilage gel, and an inner amino acid gel. Some plant varieties have white flecks on the stem surfaces. The flowers, produced in summer, are pendant and yellow; and there is a triangular fruit that contains many seeds. Aloe forms a symbiosis with soil fungi, allowing it access to mineral nutrients. The plants are 95% water by weight.
Uses
Two substances from the plant, a clear gel and a yellow latex, are commonly used in commercial products, while the juice and essential oil (extract) are used less often. The gel, obtained by filleting of the mucilage layer of the leaf, typically is used to make topical medications for skin conditions such as burns, wounds, frostbite, rashes, psoriasis, cold sores, and dry skin. Aloe vera is frequently added to makeup, skin tissues, moisturizers, soaps, sunscreens, shaving creams, and shampoos. The academic literature notes that its inclusion in hygiene products is mainly because of its reputed 'moisturizing emollient effect.' Its benefits are also said to include anti-inflammatory properties, support of collagen production, decreased burn and wound healing time and reduced scarring, antifungal and antibacterial action, and protection against the effects of radiation therapy.
A. vera has been used for centuries in traditional medicine as a skin treatment. There are records of its use as early as the fourth millennium BC in Egypt, and it is mentioned in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder (23-79 AD) and in other Greek texts. Alexander the Great was said to have sent his soldiers to the island of Socotra in order to grow aloe. It is discussed multiple times in the Bible, and it was known to have been grown and used by King Solomon. In the narratives of his travels, Marco Polo described many applications of the A. vera plant. Christopher Columbus brought A. vera on his cruises to heal ailments of his crew.
There is conflicting modern clinical evidence since the 1930s for the effectiveness and safety of aloe as a topical drug, but many experts believe that it does have benefits. Says, Dr. Manasija Rath, a physician at Penn Presbyterian Internal Medicine, "It contains anti-inflammatory chemical compounds - which reduce swelling - called anthraquinones. These chemical compounds promote healing and alleviate pain when applied to your skin. If your skin needs to heal, aloe may be a good option." And for cold sores, she says, "Fortunately aloe can soothe the pain from cold sores and make them heal faster by making your skin cells regenerate faster - which means healthy cells will grow to replace the infected ones." The identified components that are thought to be beneficial include vitamins, minerals, enzymes, sugars, lignin, sterols, amino acids, and salicylic acid. Topical use of Aloe became somewhat more standardized in the 1970s, when there was a breakthrough in processing techniques that allowed stabilization of the leaf gel to preserve its potency.
Use of topical aloe is not associated with significant side effects, and the majority of studies show it to be safe. But a few people can become allergic to Aloe vera, with skin reactions including redness and itching and sometimes systemic symptoms such as swelling of the face, lips, tongue, or throat and difficulty breathing.
The aloe latex, which contains the compound aloin, has been used in over-the-counter products to be ingested for relief of constipation, but in 2002 the FDA stopped regulating its use because manufacturers failed to provide necessary safety data. It is still marketed to treat constipation and for support of digestive system health, but it is not regulated and there is little scientific evidence for its effectiveness. When ingested in large amounts, A. vera can induce abdominal pain, diarrhea, or hepatitis; chronic ingestion may cause hematuria, weight loss, and cardiac or kidney disorders. Various state offices of environmental health have listed aloe extract as among 'chemicals known to cause cancer or reproductive toxicity.' Ingested aloe products also may have adverse interactions with prescription drugs, including those used to treat diabetes, heart disease, and hypertension, limiting the body's ability to absorb the medicines. Aloe extract is included commercially in beverages, yogurts, and dessert to improve their textures.
A. vera's succulence enables it to survive in areas of low natural rainfall, making it ideal for decorative home use in rockeries and other low water-use gardens. It is also often grown indoors in pots. In some areas, especially India and the northwestern Himalayas, it is planted as a hedge around houses.
Aloe Extract
Extract or essential oil from the leaves of aloe is obtained by cold pressing or by steam distillation under reduced pressure followed by chemical extraction and purging. As many as 120 aroma chemicals have been identified by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, with alcohols, terpenoids, and aldehydes primarily providing its faint scent.
Overall, the oil is said to have a very subtle, light, green, herbal, leafy, sappy scent. It is described as fresh, clean, aquatic, and 'chill' or 'transparent.' Aloe can sometimes leave a mild lingering suggestion of mint. It is among the mildest of fragrances and is included in perfume compositions primarily to highlight other notes, very rarely being used alone or as a dominant character. Aloe is said to blend especially well with lavender, white lily, clover, cucumber, aquatics, and citruses.
The few masculine fragrances with a relatively significant Aloe vera note include:
Avon Sidney, Avon Exploration
Azzaaro Chrome Apres Sport
Carlo Cool
Forever 25th Edition
Jaguar Fresh Man
Kashkha No. 7
Key West Aloe
Mühle Aloe Vera
Sante Naturkosmetik Homme Bio-Aloe
ScentOfLove Blue for Him[/i]
I remember my mother keeping an aloe plant around for burns (says a lot about her cooking as well 
)
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churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
In my much younger and stupider days, I hiked around the Haleakela crater in Hawaii for several hours without a shirt, at 10,000 ft altitude. That night my girlfriend's mother, a nurse, saved my burned back and shoulder skin by applying fresh aloe leaves.I remember my mother keeping an aloe plant around for burns (says a lot about her cooking as well