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Fragrance Terms
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Almond
The almond (Prunus amygdalus) is a deciduous tree, growing to a height of 13-30 feet, with a trunk up to 12 inches in diameter. Its young twigs are green at first, becoming purple where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 3-5 inches long and serrated. The flowers are white to pale pink, 1-2 inches in diameter with 5 petals, and appear at the end of winter. Almond trees grow best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Almonds begin to bear an economic crop in the third year after planting, reaching full bearing at 5-6 years. The fruit matures in the fall, 7-8 months after flowering. Almond fruit, technically a drupe (a fleshy fruit with thin skin and a central stone containing the seed), is 1.5-2.5 inches long. Its outer covering (exocarp) is a thick, leathery, grey-green coat called the hull. Inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell (endocarp). Inside this shell is the edible seed or nut. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the hull, and a layer forms between the stem and fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree.
The almond tree is native to Iran and surrounding Middle Eastern countries, including Pakistan, Syria, Israel, and Turkey. Wild almond species were harvested for food; most likely they were processed by leaching or roasting to remove toxicity from most of the species. It has been argued that a common genetic mutation caused an absence of the glycoside amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, first unintentionally in their garbage heaps and later intentionally in orchards. The almond was first domesticated about 5000 years ago, one of the first domesticated fruit trees, probably because it could be grown easily from seed, before the introduction of grafting. Cultivation of the tree then spread along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe and east to India, and in more recent times it was transported to other areas with favorable climates, including California.
The name almond comes from the late Latin amandula, derived from Greek amygdala, and then Old French almande or alemande. Other related names of almond, which sometimes are seen on perfume product bottles include mandel or knackmandel (German), mandorlo or mandorla (Italian), amêndoa (Portuguese), and almendro or almendra (Spanish).
There are two commercial varieties of P. amygdalus grown primarily in the Mediterranean and California, the sweet almond (var. dulcis) that provides the edible nut and the bitter almond (var. amara) that is the main source of essential oil. Other species of the genus Prunus, such as apricot, peach, and cherry, also produce bitter kernels. The bitter almond nut is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% less fixed oil. It has an enzyme which yields glucose, cyanide, and the essential oil, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde. All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are the sweet variety.
World production of almonds increased by 45% from 2017 to 2018, with the United States providing 81% of the total (mostly from California). Other producing countries include Australia, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Syria, and Turkey.
Almond Perfumery in History and Culture
In 2003 a perfume factory found was found by archeologists at Pyrgos-Mavroraki on Cyprus that is believed to date to the Early Bronze age 4000 years ago, and which was destroyed in an earthquake in 1850 BC. Perfume bottles, mixing jugs, and stills were found preserved under the collapsed walls, along with finished perfumes, ingredients, and a few recipes. Along with anise, pine, coriander, bergamot, and parsley, almond was found to be one of the key ingredients. These perfumes were used to honor Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, and almond oil still is used today in some cultures as an aphrodisiac.
The Roman historian Pliny the Elder, who wrote extensively about the process of making perfumes, complained about the very popular almond perfume, saying that it was a disgrace that people wasted money on it when the scent disappeared so rapidly. In those times, frankincense and myrrh sometimes were used as fixatives with almond oil. In ancient Rome, newlyweds were showered with almonds to symbolize fertility. Especially early blooming of almond trees was believed to foretell a bountiful harvest season.
In the Hebrew Bible, the almond tree was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering. It is described in the Book of Genesis as "among the best of fruits." According to Biblical tradition, the rod of Aaron bore sweet almonds on one side and bitter ones on the other; if the Israelites followed the Lord's commandments, the sweet almonds would be ripe and edible, but if they forsook the path of the Lord, the bitter almonds would predominate. The almond blossom is said to have supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Jewish Holy Temple. Similarly, Christian symbolism often used almond branches as a symbol of the Virgin Birth. La Entrada de la Flor is still an event celebrated on February 1 in Spain, in which the fruits of the almond tree are offered to the Virgin Mary. During the Middle Ages, almond consumption was huge; an inventory in 1372 of the effects of Jeanne d'Evreux, the Queen of France, lists only 20 pounds of sugar but 500 pounds of almonds.
In folklore, dreaming of an almond symbolizes an upcoming journey: a sweet almond suggests a prosperous journey, while a bitter almond means misfortune. The Chinese have considered the almond a symbol of both enduring sadness and female beauty. Folklore also has claimed that almonds are poisonous for foxes. The bitter almond was thought to be preventive of alcohol intoxication: Plutarch spoke of a great drinker of wine who escaped becoming intoxicated by eating bitter almonds.
Almond Blossom
Almond blossoms are very fragrant, subtle and sweet, and they project the scent for several yards. Almond flower essence from the sweet almond tree are used to give a light, delicate, airy note to perfumes, primarily unisex and feminine ones. The scent starts slightly citrusy, somewhat like mandarin rind, then is honey-like, buttery, and floral, with a slight gourmand nuance of the almond nut. The fragrance is extracted from crushed flower petals by solvent extraction and distillation.
Bitter Almond
Bitter almond oil is the volatile essential oil that provides fragrance in perfume products and aromatherapy. Sweet almond oil, in contrast, is a fixed oil with very little scent and a nutty taste, and it is used as a base carrier oil in cosmetic products and for flavoring foods.
Almond essential oil falls in the gourmand fragrance family, although it also has woody and sweet tones. It has an overall bittersweet odor, soft, delicate, and a bit nutty. The oil used in perfumery can be a creamy, soft almond; or toasted almond much like coumarin; or most often the classical sweet almond note that is primarily from benzaldehyde. Due to its rounded scent, it can be used in many different ways, but most often appears as a top note and is especially popular in spring and summer blends. It combines especially well with floral, resin, and other gourmand notes such as coffee, cocoa, and honey, and its combination with vanilla is renowned and widely used. It also is commonly blended with balsam of Peru, jasmine, osmanthus, patchouli, sandalwood, tonka bean, and ylang ylang. Fruity notes like apple and pear give almond a fresher and lighter tone. The oil is medium to highly volatile and does not have any fixative properties. The addition of vanilla or sandalwood as fixatives can increase the stability and tenacity of the almond essential oil.
Almond essential oil is produced also from crushed and pressed kernels of cherries, apricots, peaches, and prunes, and from cinnamon bark, through steam distillation. The process of obtaining bitter almond essential oil is quite complex because of the need to remove the extremely toxic prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid), which involves alkaline leaching and re-distillation. Despite this process, the oil can occasionally cause skin irritation, which can be severe in sensitive or allergic individuals.
Benzaldehyde
Amygdalin, the poisonous material in bitter almonds, was first extracted in 1803 by the French pharmacist Martrès. Further experimentation with the oil by chemists Pierre Robiquet and Antoine Boutron-Charlard, isolated benzaldehyde; and in 1832, Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig first was able to synthesize benzaldehyde. In modern compounds, synthetic benzaldehyde is used much more often than natural almond, because it is cheaper and does not cause any skin irritation. Like almond oil, it has medium volatility and no fixative properties. Depending upon its dilution and blending, benzaldehyde's smell can be bitter or sweet. It often is used to recreate natural almond or cherry scents in fragrance compounds, providing rich, warm base notes. Its amaretto notes are useful in fragrances that are meant to imitate the aromas of certain foods.
Marzipan
Marzipan scent is considered a sub-category of almond. It too has a warm bittersweet tone, reminiscent of the almond paste used in decorating and filling desserts, and generally it is sweeter than natural almond. It reflects the food confection's composition of almond meal, egg white, and sugar or honey. The basic scent is often combined with vanilla, rose, benzoin, musk, cassis, or black currant.
Other Almond Uses
In addition to the nuts being eaten alone or in other food products and dishes in many cultures, the sweet oil provides flavoring and sometimes is used in cooking as a substitute for olive oil. Almond extract is produced by cold pressing almonds to collect the oil, which is then combined with alcohol. Ethanol suspensions of synthetic benzaldehyde are sold inexpensively as imitation almond extract for use in cakes and other baked goods. Almond syrup (an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds usually made with barley or orgeat syrup as a base) has been used for flavoring and as a condiment; modern versions generally consist of only sweet almonds. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree ('green almonds') can be eaten when it is still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not hardened. It can be pickled or brined to extend its shelf life.
When combined with aldehydes, almond can have a fresh, pure scent that is very popular in soaps, shampoos, and skin care products. Almond flower extract has humectant/moisturizing, firming, smoothing, cleaning, and soothing properties, making it popular in cosmetic products, especially those for babies. Almond proteins are included in hair products to coat the fiber and make the hair shiny; and almond bark and shells, reduced to powder, are used in scrubs and exfoliators. The sweet oil has been used traditionally by massage therapists to lubricate the skin because of its effective emollient properties.
Claimed medicinal benefits of almonds include improved complexion; improved digestion; relief from coughs and hoarseness; easing of fevers, aches, and pains; treatment of liver, kidney, and bladder ailments; and prevention of cancer. Recent studies suggest that almonds in the diet can improve levels of cholesterols and have anti-inflammatory, immunity boosting, and anti-hepatotoxicity effects. In Ayurvedic Indian medicine, almond is considered a nutritive for the brain and nervous system and an aphrodisiac, both in massage and internally. Edgar Cayce, an American psychic, regarded by some as a father of American holistic medicine, is said to have recommended almonds for overall physical and spiritual health. Sweet almond has been used to make castor oil palatable. Extract of bitter almond also was used medicinally in the past, but even in small doses the effects can be severe or fatal, especially in children.
Almond Fragrances (Masculine* and Unisex):
4711 Acqua Colonia Cotton & Almond
Acqua di Genova Fontana di Trevi XIV
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Mandorlo di Sicilia
Agatha Imperial Jade Men*
Alchemic Muse Marzipan
Alkemia Perfumes Cyanide
l'Artisan Parfumeur Jour de Fete
Aulentissima Amande
Azzaro Twin*
Brecourt Captive
Caswell Massey Centuries Almond
Christian Dior Bois d'Argent*
Coquillete Sulmona, Ambrosia
Davidoff Good Life*
Demeter Almond
Donna Karan Fuel*, DK*
l'Erbolario Mandorla
Etro Heliotrope
Frazer Parfum Chapter Four
Gabriel et Valentin Alexandre Cheri
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel*
Giorgio Armani Code Special Blend*
Givenchy Pi*
Granado Safari Encantado
Gritti White Almond
Guerlain l'Homme (various)*, Tonka Imperiale
Heloise de V. Dejeuner sous le Figuier
Initio Parfums High Frequency*
Jo Malone London Honey & Crocus, Green Almond & Redcurrant
Joop! Nightflight*
Lacoste l'Homme (various)*
Lancome Hypnose*
Lempicka Homme*
Lush Frangipani
Mazzolari Alessandro
Mr. Burberry Element*
Montale Amandes Orientales, Sweet Oriental Dream
Morph Zeta
Muriel Cosmeticos Aqua Essence Flor de Amendoas
Nest White Sandalwood*
Nikkos-Oskol Fragrance No. 17
l'Occitane en Provence Eau Maman & Bebe
Omnia Profumi Animanobile
Oriflame Delicate Cherry Blossom
Ortigia Sicilia Almond
Paco Rabanne XS l'Aphrodisiaque*
Pacoroca Hot Sense*
Parfums Berdoues Amande & Tonka
Parfums de Marly Pegasus*
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Calissons Gourmands
Pierre Guillaume Paris Mio Bjao
Prada Infusion d'Amande
Profumum Roma Dolce Acqua, Confetto, Antico Caruso
Serge Lutens Louve
Simone Andreoli Mandorla di Noto
Van Cleef & Arpels Bois d'Amande*, Midnight in Paris*
Yves Rocher Babiflore, Canneberge & Amande
Zara Amber Wood*
Almond Blossom Male* and Unisex Fragrances:
Acca Kappa Vaniglia Fior di Mandorlo
Acqua di Genova Gold
Alkemia Laveau
Amua Taerre
Boellis Fiore di Mandorlo di Sicilia
Boucheron Iris de Syracuse
Cosmeticos Acqua Essence Flor de Amendoas
Discovery Night of Nordlys
Exaltatum Mimosa Gold
Francesca dell'Oro Voile Confit
House of Oud Wonderly
Les Senteurs Gourmandes Amande Fleurie
Lomani Virtual*
Maison Martin Margiela Flying
Memo Paris Desert Orange Blossom
Ortigia Sicilia Almond
Ricardo Ramos Matcha NoNo
Richard White Chocola
Sense Dubai No. 5
Shay & Blue London Almond Cucumber
Sinfonia di Note Patchouli
Tesori d'Oriente Hammam
Xerjoff Amber Gold
Marzipan Male* and Unisex Fragrances:
Alkemia Buosni
Avon Pretty Blue
Cerruti 1881 Black*
DSH Marzipan (Holiday No. 5)
Ganache Kake
Keiko Mecheri Lunea
Lush Snowcake
OsmoGenes No. 3
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Calissons Gourmands, Caramel
Pure Sense Serenity
The almond (Prunus amygdalus) is a deciduous tree, growing to a height of 13-30 feet, with a trunk up to 12 inches in diameter. Its young twigs are green at first, becoming purple where exposed to sunlight, then grey in their second year. The leaves are 3-5 inches long and serrated. The flowers are white to pale pink, 1-2 inches in diameter with 5 petals, and appear at the end of winter. Almond trees grow best in Mediterranean climates with warm, dry summers and mild, wet winters. Almonds begin to bear an economic crop in the third year after planting, reaching full bearing at 5-6 years. The fruit matures in the fall, 7-8 months after flowering. Almond fruit, technically a drupe (a fleshy fruit with thin skin and a central stone containing the seed), is 1.5-2.5 inches long. Its outer covering (exocarp) is a thick, leathery, grey-green coat called the hull. Inside the hull is a reticulated, hard, woody shell (endocarp). Inside this shell is the edible seed or nut. After the fruit matures, the hull splits and separates from the hull, and a layer forms between the stem and fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree.
The almond tree is native to Iran and surrounding Middle Eastern countries, including Pakistan, Syria, Israel, and Turkey. Wild almond species were harvested for food; most likely they were processed by leaching or roasting to remove toxicity from most of the species. It has been argued that a common genetic mutation caused an absence of the glycoside amygdalin, and this mutant was grown by early farmers, first unintentionally in their garbage heaps and later intentionally in orchards. The almond was first domesticated about 5000 years ago, one of the first domesticated fruit trees, probably because it could be grown easily from seed, before the introduction of grafting. Cultivation of the tree then spread along the shores of the Mediterranean into northern Africa and southern Europe and east to India, and in more recent times it was transported to other areas with favorable climates, including California.
The name almond comes from the late Latin amandula, derived from Greek amygdala, and then Old French almande or alemande. Other related names of almond, which sometimes are seen on perfume product bottles include mandel or knackmandel (German), mandorlo or mandorla (Italian), amêndoa (Portuguese), and almendro or almendra (Spanish).
There are two commercial varieties of P. amygdalus grown primarily in the Mediterranean and California, the sweet almond (var. dulcis) that provides the edible nut and the bitter almond (var. amara) that is the main source of essential oil. Other species of the genus Prunus, such as apricot, peach, and cherry, also produce bitter kernels. The bitter almond nut is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50% less fixed oil. It has an enzyme which yields glucose, cyanide, and the essential oil, which is nearly pure benzaldehyde. All commercially grown almonds sold as food in the U.S. are the sweet variety.
World production of almonds increased by 45% from 2017 to 2018, with the United States providing 81% of the total (mostly from California). Other producing countries include Australia, Greece, Italy, Portugal, Spain, Syria, and Turkey.
Almond Perfumery in History and Culture
In 2003 a perfume factory found was found by archeologists at Pyrgos-Mavroraki on Cyprus that is believed to date to the Early Bronze age 4000 years ago, and which was destroyed in an earthquake in 1850 BC. Perfume bottles, mixing jugs, and stills were found preserved under the collapsed walls, along with finished perfumes, ingredients, and a few recipes. Along with anise, pine, coriander, bergamot, and parsley, almond was found to be one of the key ingredients. These perfumes were used to honor Aphrodite, the Greek goddess of love, and almond oil still is used today in some cultures as an aphrodisiac.
The Roman historian Pliny the Elder, who wrote extensively about the process of making perfumes, complained about the very popular almond perfume, saying that it was a disgrace that people wasted money on it when the scent disappeared so rapidly. In those times, frankincense and myrrh sometimes were used as fixatives with almond oil. In ancient Rome, newlyweds were showered with almonds to symbolize fertility. Especially early blooming of almond trees was believed to foretell a bountiful harvest season.
In the Hebrew Bible, the almond tree was a symbol of watchfulness and promise due to its early flowering. It is described in the Book of Genesis as "among the best of fruits." According to Biblical tradition, the rod of Aaron bore sweet almonds on one side and bitter ones on the other; if the Israelites followed the Lord's commandments, the sweet almonds would be ripe and edible, but if they forsook the path of the Lord, the bitter almonds would predominate. The almond blossom is said to have supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the Jewish Holy Temple. Similarly, Christian symbolism often used almond branches as a symbol of the Virgin Birth. La Entrada de la Flor is still an event celebrated on February 1 in Spain, in which the fruits of the almond tree are offered to the Virgin Mary. During the Middle Ages, almond consumption was huge; an inventory in 1372 of the effects of Jeanne d'Evreux, the Queen of France, lists only 20 pounds of sugar but 500 pounds of almonds.
In folklore, dreaming of an almond symbolizes an upcoming journey: a sweet almond suggests a prosperous journey, while a bitter almond means misfortune. The Chinese have considered the almond a symbol of both enduring sadness and female beauty. Folklore also has claimed that almonds are poisonous for foxes. The bitter almond was thought to be preventive of alcohol intoxication: Plutarch spoke of a great drinker of wine who escaped becoming intoxicated by eating bitter almonds.
Almond Blossom
Almond blossoms are very fragrant, subtle and sweet, and they project the scent for several yards. Almond flower essence from the sweet almond tree are used to give a light, delicate, airy note to perfumes, primarily unisex and feminine ones. The scent starts slightly citrusy, somewhat like mandarin rind, then is honey-like, buttery, and floral, with a slight gourmand nuance of the almond nut. The fragrance is extracted from crushed flower petals by solvent extraction and distillation.
Bitter Almond
Bitter almond oil is the volatile essential oil that provides fragrance in perfume products and aromatherapy. Sweet almond oil, in contrast, is a fixed oil with very little scent and a nutty taste, and it is used as a base carrier oil in cosmetic products and for flavoring foods.
Almond essential oil falls in the gourmand fragrance family, although it also has woody and sweet tones. It has an overall bittersweet odor, soft, delicate, and a bit nutty. The oil used in perfumery can be a creamy, soft almond; or toasted almond much like coumarin; or most often the classical sweet almond note that is primarily from benzaldehyde. Due to its rounded scent, it can be used in many different ways, but most often appears as a top note and is especially popular in spring and summer blends. It combines especially well with floral, resin, and other gourmand notes such as coffee, cocoa, and honey, and its combination with vanilla is renowned and widely used. It also is commonly blended with balsam of Peru, jasmine, osmanthus, patchouli, sandalwood, tonka bean, and ylang ylang. Fruity notes like apple and pear give almond a fresher and lighter tone. The oil is medium to highly volatile and does not have any fixative properties. The addition of vanilla or sandalwood as fixatives can increase the stability and tenacity of the almond essential oil.
Almond essential oil is produced also from crushed and pressed kernels of cherries, apricots, peaches, and prunes, and from cinnamon bark, through steam distillation. The process of obtaining bitter almond essential oil is quite complex because of the need to remove the extremely toxic prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid), which involves alkaline leaching and re-distillation. Despite this process, the oil can occasionally cause skin irritation, which can be severe in sensitive or allergic individuals.
Benzaldehyde
Amygdalin, the poisonous material in bitter almonds, was first extracted in 1803 by the French pharmacist Martrès. Further experimentation with the oil by chemists Pierre Robiquet and Antoine Boutron-Charlard, isolated benzaldehyde; and in 1832, Friedrich Wöhler and Justus von Liebig first was able to synthesize benzaldehyde. In modern compounds, synthetic benzaldehyde is used much more often than natural almond, because it is cheaper and does not cause any skin irritation. Like almond oil, it has medium volatility and no fixative properties. Depending upon its dilution and blending, benzaldehyde's smell can be bitter or sweet. It often is used to recreate natural almond or cherry scents in fragrance compounds, providing rich, warm base notes. Its amaretto notes are useful in fragrances that are meant to imitate the aromas of certain foods.
Marzipan
Marzipan scent is considered a sub-category of almond. It too has a warm bittersweet tone, reminiscent of the almond paste used in decorating and filling desserts, and generally it is sweeter than natural almond. It reflects the food confection's composition of almond meal, egg white, and sugar or honey. The basic scent is often combined with vanilla, rose, benzoin, musk, cassis, or black currant.
Other Almond Uses
In addition to the nuts being eaten alone or in other food products and dishes in many cultures, the sweet oil provides flavoring and sometimes is used in cooking as a substitute for olive oil. Almond extract is produced by cold pressing almonds to collect the oil, which is then combined with alcohol. Ethanol suspensions of synthetic benzaldehyde are sold inexpensively as imitation almond extract for use in cakes and other baked goods. Almond syrup (an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds usually made with barley or orgeat syrup as a base) has been used for flavoring and as a condiment; modern versions generally consist of only sweet almonds. The young, developing fruit of the almond tree ('green almonds') can be eaten when it is still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not hardened. It can be pickled or brined to extend its shelf life.
When combined with aldehydes, almond can have a fresh, pure scent that is very popular in soaps, shampoos, and skin care products. Almond flower extract has humectant/moisturizing, firming, smoothing, cleaning, and soothing properties, making it popular in cosmetic products, especially those for babies. Almond proteins are included in hair products to coat the fiber and make the hair shiny; and almond bark and shells, reduced to powder, are used in scrubs and exfoliators. The sweet oil has been used traditionally by massage therapists to lubricate the skin because of its effective emollient properties.
Claimed medicinal benefits of almonds include improved complexion; improved digestion; relief from coughs and hoarseness; easing of fevers, aches, and pains; treatment of liver, kidney, and bladder ailments; and prevention of cancer. Recent studies suggest that almonds in the diet can improve levels of cholesterols and have anti-inflammatory, immunity boosting, and anti-hepatotoxicity effects. In Ayurvedic Indian medicine, almond is considered a nutritive for the brain and nervous system and an aphrodisiac, both in massage and internally. Edgar Cayce, an American psychic, regarded by some as a father of American holistic medicine, is said to have recommended almonds for overall physical and spiritual health. Sweet almond has been used to make castor oil palatable. Extract of bitter almond also was used medicinally in the past, but even in small doses the effects can be severe or fatal, especially in children.
Almond Fragrances (Masculine* and Unisex):
4711 Acqua Colonia Cotton & Almond
Acqua di Genova Fontana di Trevi XIV
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Mandorlo di Sicilia
Agatha Imperial Jade Men*
Alchemic Muse Marzipan
Alkemia Perfumes Cyanide
l'Artisan Parfumeur Jour de Fete
Aulentissima Amande
Azzaro Twin*
Brecourt Captive
Caswell Massey Centuries Almond
Christian Dior Bois d'Argent*
Coquillete Sulmona, Ambrosia
Davidoff Good Life*
Demeter Almond
Donna Karan Fuel*, DK*
l'Erbolario Mandorla
Etro Heliotrope
Frazer Parfum Chapter Four
Gabriel et Valentin Alexandre Cheri
Geoffrey Beene Grey Flannel*
Giorgio Armani Code Special Blend*
Givenchy Pi*
Granado Safari Encantado
Gritti White Almond
Guerlain l'Homme (various)*, Tonka Imperiale
Heloise de V. Dejeuner sous le Figuier
Initio Parfums High Frequency*
Jo Malone London Honey & Crocus, Green Almond & Redcurrant
Joop! Nightflight*
Lacoste l'Homme (various)*
Lancome Hypnose*
Lempicka Homme*
Lush Frangipani
Mazzolari Alessandro
Mr. Burberry Element*
Montale Amandes Orientales, Sweet Oriental Dream
Morph Zeta
Muriel Cosmeticos Aqua Essence Flor de Amendoas
Nest White Sandalwood*
Nikkos-Oskol Fragrance No. 17
l'Occitane en Provence Eau Maman & Bebe
Omnia Profumi Animanobile
Oriflame Delicate Cherry Blossom
Ortigia Sicilia Almond
Paco Rabanne XS l'Aphrodisiaque*
Pacoroca Hot Sense*
Parfums Berdoues Amande & Tonka
Parfums de Marly Pegasus*
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Calissons Gourmands
Pierre Guillaume Paris Mio Bjao
Prada Infusion d'Amande
Profumum Roma Dolce Acqua, Confetto, Antico Caruso
Serge Lutens Louve
Simone Andreoli Mandorla di Noto
Van Cleef & Arpels Bois d'Amande*, Midnight in Paris*
Yves Rocher Babiflore, Canneberge & Amande
Zara Amber Wood*
Almond Blossom Male* and Unisex Fragrances:
Acca Kappa Vaniglia Fior di Mandorlo
Acqua di Genova Gold
Alkemia Laveau
Amua Taerre
Boellis Fiore di Mandorlo di Sicilia
Boucheron Iris de Syracuse
Cosmeticos Acqua Essence Flor de Amendoas
Discovery Night of Nordlys
Exaltatum Mimosa Gold
Francesca dell'Oro Voile Confit
House of Oud Wonderly
Les Senteurs Gourmandes Amande Fleurie
Lomani Virtual*
Maison Martin Margiela Flying
Memo Paris Desert Orange Blossom
Ortigia Sicilia Almond
Ricardo Ramos Matcha NoNo
Richard White Chocola
Sense Dubai No. 5
Shay & Blue London Almond Cucumber
Sinfonia di Note Patchouli
Tesori d'Oriente Hammam
Xerjoff Amber Gold
Marzipan Male* and Unisex Fragrances:
Alkemia Buosni
Avon Pretty Blue
Cerruti 1881 Black*
DSH Marzipan (Holiday No. 5)
Ganache Kake
Keiko Mecheri Lunea
Lush Snowcake
OsmoGenes No. 3
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Calissons Gourmands, Caramel
Pure Sense Serenity
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Perfumer or 'Nose'
Perfumer
"To me, it is very important to have perfume in which it is hard to recognize a particular flower or scent. That gives a touch of mystery." - Isabella Rossellini
In perfumery, a person who mixes fragrance components to make a perfume is called a perfumer ('parfumeur createur' in French), or if notably creative, a 'nose' (although this term is now being used less often within the industry itself). The perfumer, both an artist and a technician, invents perfumes seated at his or her perfume organ, a miniature laboratory with raw materials, precision scales, small paper dipsticks, and other equipment.
Perfume Organs, Old and New
The aim of the perfumer is to use trial and error with experimental scent dosages to create an accord, a harmony of fragrances, much as one would create color harmony or a melody in music. In many ways the job is like that of flavorists who compose smells and added flavorants for commercial food products. In addition to being able to identify and blend scents, a perfumer must be able to consider issues like the stability of a scent after bottling, its interaction with other substances, and production costs, as well as for whom a product will be marketed and where geographically it will be sold. People of different economic and social classes, genders, ethnic backgrounds, and nationalities have widely differing scent preferences.
The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer, usually fashion houses or large corporations of various industries, providing the specifications for the desired perfume, sometimes based upon analysis of market strategies. The briefs often describe in poetic or abstract terms what the perfume should smell like or what feelings it should evoke in those who smell it, along with a maximum price of the perfume oil concentrate. The perfumer then blends multiple perfume mixtures for demonstration, sometimes with direction provided by a company supervisory panel or artistic director. This process typically takes several months to several years and may involve public surveys to help tailor the candidate formulations. If successful in "winning" the brief, the creator or employer then sells the selected perfume to the customer. The composition then either is used as a functional fragrance to enhance another product (shampoo, soap, makeup, detergent, automobile interior materials, etc.) or is marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance. Less often, a 'nose' simply is inspired artistically to create a new perfume and produces one for marketing; this is more common in smaller, independent perfume houses.
There are approximately 1000 perfumers in the world, but fewer than 50 of them are called 'noses,' those whose creativity and originality are such that they are able to launch completely new trends. A typical 'nose' can remember and recognize up to 3000 different smells. Development as a perfumer or a 'nose' requires both a natural aptitude for scent and extensive, specialized training, taking around 3 years for a general perfumer and for up to 7 or more years for a 'nose.' Schools of perfumery are a relatively recent development, with the first one (Givaudan) established in 1946 in Paris, and the next major ones in 1970s. The main school for this now is in Grasse, France, a region renowned for centuries for its perfume production, and nearly every 'nose' either is a native of Grasse or has worked in perfume making there.
Grasse Institute of Perfumery, GIP Student
Traditionally in the past, a perfumer would have trained as an apprentice, working with an experienced perfumer, often a family member, rather than undergoing formalized academic training. In addition to their training in the scent industry, modern 'noses' often pursue advanced degrees in chemistry, and many also study psychology, since it plays such an important role in perfume perceptions. Some universities have started to offer combined bachelor degree programs in perfumery and business, and students obtaining academic training sometimes are supported financially by major research funding agencies. A few perfume companies, such as Givaudan, now offer perfumer training to limited numbers of their employees who already have foundations in chemistry or pharmacy, usually with a contractual requirement that the employee remain with the company for a specified period of time after completing their training. Occasionally, individuals still start with a company as an entry level lab technician, blending materials according to the perfumer's formula, gradually becoming familiar with the raw materials and techniques, and proving to the senior perfumer that they have the requisite talent, interest, and drive, before embarking upon more advanced training.
Each of the major perfume companies, which develop over 99% of all new perfume products, including Mane, Firmenich, IFF, Fragrance Resources, Drom, Ungerer, Givaudan, Takasago, and Symrise, employs up to 3 or 4 'noses' and a larger number of perfumers. However, other 'noses' prefer to work independently, forming their own companies for the production and sale of fragrances to the companies, although this is not common. A very few 'noses' are capable of designing custom scents for specific individuals, a service only available to extremely wealthy people. Most elite 'noses' are assisted by large support staffs and apprentices.
There is some concern that the creative aspect of the perfumer art is in danger of disappearing, since computers are being used increasingly for formulation of new perfume compositions. Each perfume company has hundreds of thousands to millions of fragrance formulas in their data bases, and a single fragrance can create hundreds of new permutations. Thus it can be easier and cheaper to simply put into a computer program the relevant target information, have a composition created, and send it to a customer for evaluation.
Perfumer
"To me, it is very important to have perfume in which it is hard to recognize a particular flower or scent. That gives a touch of mystery." - Isabella Rossellini
In perfumery, a person who mixes fragrance components to make a perfume is called a perfumer ('parfumeur createur' in French), or if notably creative, a 'nose' (although this term is now being used less often within the industry itself). The perfumer, both an artist and a technician, invents perfumes seated at his or her perfume organ, a miniature laboratory with raw materials, precision scales, small paper dipsticks, and other equipment.
Perfume Organs, Old and New
The aim of the perfumer is to use trial and error with experimental scent dosages to create an accord, a harmony of fragrances, much as one would create color harmony or a melody in music. In many ways the job is like that of flavorists who compose smells and added flavorants for commercial food products. In addition to being able to identify and blend scents, a perfumer must be able to consider issues like the stability of a scent after bottling, its interaction with other substances, and production costs, as well as for whom a product will be marketed and where geographically it will be sold. People of different economic and social classes, genders, ethnic backgrounds, and nationalities have widely differing scent preferences.
The composition of a perfume typically begins with a brief by the perfumer's employer or an outside customer, usually fashion houses or large corporations of various industries, providing the specifications for the desired perfume, sometimes based upon analysis of market strategies. The briefs often describe in poetic or abstract terms what the perfume should smell like or what feelings it should evoke in those who smell it, along with a maximum price of the perfume oil concentrate. The perfumer then blends multiple perfume mixtures for demonstration, sometimes with direction provided by a company supervisory panel or artistic director. This process typically takes several months to several years and may involve public surveys to help tailor the candidate formulations. If successful in "winning" the brief, the creator or employer then sells the selected perfume to the customer. The composition then either is used as a functional fragrance to enhance another product (shampoo, soap, makeup, detergent, automobile interior materials, etc.) or is marketed and sold directly to the public as a fine fragrance. Less often, a 'nose' simply is inspired artistically to create a new perfume and produces one for marketing; this is more common in smaller, independent perfume houses.
There are approximately 1000 perfumers in the world, but fewer than 50 of them are called 'noses,' those whose creativity and originality are such that they are able to launch completely new trends. A typical 'nose' can remember and recognize up to 3000 different smells. Development as a perfumer or a 'nose' requires both a natural aptitude for scent and extensive, specialized training, taking around 3 years for a general perfumer and for up to 7 or more years for a 'nose.' Schools of perfumery are a relatively recent development, with the first one (Givaudan) established in 1946 in Paris, and the next major ones in 1970s. The main school for this now is in Grasse, France, a region renowned for centuries for its perfume production, and nearly every 'nose' either is a native of Grasse or has worked in perfume making there.
Grasse Institute of Perfumery, GIP Student
Traditionally in the past, a perfumer would have trained as an apprentice, working with an experienced perfumer, often a family member, rather than undergoing formalized academic training. In addition to their training in the scent industry, modern 'noses' often pursue advanced degrees in chemistry, and many also study psychology, since it plays such an important role in perfume perceptions. Some universities have started to offer combined bachelor degree programs in perfumery and business, and students obtaining academic training sometimes are supported financially by major research funding agencies. A few perfume companies, such as Givaudan, now offer perfumer training to limited numbers of their employees who already have foundations in chemistry or pharmacy, usually with a contractual requirement that the employee remain with the company for a specified period of time after completing their training. Occasionally, individuals still start with a company as an entry level lab technician, blending materials according to the perfumer's formula, gradually becoming familiar with the raw materials and techniques, and proving to the senior perfumer that they have the requisite talent, interest, and drive, before embarking upon more advanced training.
Each of the major perfume companies, which develop over 99% of all new perfume products, including Mane, Firmenich, IFF, Fragrance Resources, Drom, Ungerer, Givaudan, Takasago, and Symrise, employs up to 3 or 4 'noses' and a larger number of perfumers. However, other 'noses' prefer to work independently, forming their own companies for the production and sale of fragrances to the companies, although this is not common. A very few 'noses' are capable of designing custom scents for specific individuals, a service only available to extremely wealthy people. Most elite 'noses' are assisted by large support staffs and apprentices.
There is some concern that the creative aspect of the perfumer art is in danger of disappearing, since computers are being used increasingly for formulation of new perfume compositions. Each perfume company has hundreds of thousands to millions of fragrance formulas in their data bases, and a single fragrance can create hundreds of new permutations. Thus it can be easier and cheaper to simply put into a computer program the relevant target information, have a composition created, and send it to a customer for evaluation.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Pillar and Flanker Fragrances, Reconcentration, and Reformulation
Pillars
In perfumery language a pillar fragrance is a standalone fragrance meant to provide significant individual support to a brand. It is an entirely new creation and release with no connection to or affiliation with any existing fragrances within the brand's total collection.
Flankers
A flanker fragrance is a 'sequel' or spin-off fragrance, a version 2.0 that capitalizes on the success of the corresponding pillar one. Some flanker scents are variations on the original (i.e. they might share certain notes), but with one or two key alterations, while others share nothing more than the name or packaging. The most common type of flanker is one that offers a variation of the pillar's main theme and structure but amplifies a particular accord or adds new top or heart notes to alter the overall impression. A symbolic flanker is one in which the scent smells completely different and is merely capitalizing on the name of its predecessor.
Flankers usually have the same name as the original but with another word or two added. Most often flankers are released within one to five years after the pillar fragrance, but sometimes the process is continued. Calvin Klein, for example, has been issuing annual flankers of CK One regularly since 2004. The first flankers appeared in the 1970s, and the practice increased steadily, with nearly 20% of all new launches now being flankers. A recent trend has been the production of flankers for vintage classic fragrances, a way to target a new generation of clients for whom the flanker might act as a 'gateway fragrance,' perhaps leading them to purchasing the original when they are older.
Flankers are usually packaged in the same or a very similar bottle as the pillar, but the bottle might have a different color, finish, or decoration, or the liquid itself is a different color. They often are released as supplementary limited editions, reformulated for a particular use or occasion without replacing the original. Although some flankers may be labelled as having different concentrations, most will have subtitles like 'sport,' 'intense,' or 'nuit.' Many brands release summer versions of popular scents (especially of winter or evening scents), often a 'l'eau' form that is lighter or has added citrus or aquatic notes. Some of these only last as long as the summer season or the holiday gifting period, examples being CK One and Jean Paul Gaultier Classique. Some flankers are meant to capture buyers in new demographics; these might display a softening of the pillar's composition to appeal to a younger population or to specific geographic markets, such as the Asian markets or the Middle Eastern market.
Generally, eau de parfum versions of existing eau de toilette fragrances are not considered flankers. If unsure about whether or not a fragrance is a flanker, the information sometimes can be found on a sticker on the bottom of the bottle. And the batch code is a guide to the year of production, which also can answer the question.
One example in men's fragrances is the pillar fragrance Thierry Mugler A*Men, followed by A*Men Pure Malt (and several others), which added smoky peat and tobacco notes. More recently Mugler released 'liqueur' and 'leather' versions of it. Another example is Paco Rabanne 1 Million for Men (2008), which was followed by a perfume for women, Lady Million (2010) with very similar packaging. A well-known one is Yves Saint Laurent l'Homme, which spawned l'Homme Intense, l'Homme ULtime, l'Homme Sport, and others. Flankers offer brands the opportunity to build upon the popularity of a pillar fragrance, sometimes surpassing the original's commercial success. From a marketing perspective, flankers allow brands to increase market share at a lower cost than would be possible with a new pillar, since tweaking an existing formula and/or bottle design requires much less investment than does all-new market research, composition formulation, and new bottle and packaging design. This is very similar to the release of sequels in the movie industry, in which doubling down on the success of an existing hit film is easier than starting from scratch with a new idea that may or may not be successful. Flankers also provide a means for increased market penetration: fans of the pillar might be committed enough to purchase any subsequent flankers, and people who did not purchase the pillar might be persuaded to buy a more appealing - perhaps lighter or heavier - flanker. Another rationale for flankers is the perceived need to stay relevant and trendy, with the release of something new assuring a strong presence on the fragrance counters.
There are many complaints about flankers, even beyond the simple fact that there are so many of them. There is a general tendency of flankers to 'dumb down' a fragrance, to 'sportify,' 'summer'-ize, or 'oudify' it in a way that lessens the pillar's qualities, although this is not always true. Among discerning, skeptical fragrance fans, flankers are usually considered to be hastily thrown-together products that do not honor the originals. Since everyone knew, for example, that Acqua di Gio has been a best seller every year, it made business sense to just make another cheap citrus-aquatic formula and gamble that it too would sell well, and many were produced.
Well-known flanker producers include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia
Bentley for Men
Bottega Veneta pour Homme
Calvin Klein One
Dior Homme
Guerlain l'Homme
Hermes Terre d'Hermes
Lalique Encre Noire and Hommage
Thierry Mugler A*Men
Tom Ford Portofino Acqua
Reconcentration
With flankers having reached a sort of saturation point in recent years, the perfume industry is increasingly turning to re-concentrating established fragrances as a method of band extension instead of flankers. This process is merely the tweaking of a formula to increase or decrease the ratio of aromatic oils to alcohol in the bottle. The greater the percentage of aromatic compounds, as in an eau de parfum or parfum extrait, the greater the intensity and longevity of the fragrance. Decreasing the percentage of aromatic compounds results in less intensity and shorter longevity, such as an eau de cologne or eau fraiche. Examples of re-concentration include Terre d’Hermes Hermès Eau Tres Fraiche and Parfum, Dior Sauvage Parfum, and Tom Ford Private Blend Intense releases. Re-concentration allows a brand to maintain a pillar fragrance in softer or more amplified strengths, thus appealing to different buyers. This re-concentration, of course, has some impact on the end effect - the scent that is smelled - due to materials smelling differently at varying concentrations, and some notes being disguised by or overpowered by others. However, these changes are not a deliberate attempt by a perfumer to alter the pillar formula, so re-concentrated fragrances are not considered flankers.
Reformulation
Reformulation is different than flanker creation, in that it involves an effort to maintain the integrity of a fragrance while bowing to changing production needs. The smell of the fragrance sometimes stays the same, but sometimes it changes in either scent or performance; and the general reception to this change can be good or bad.
Reformulation of perfume products is very common and frequent, for various reasons. The major reason for reformulation is that some materials, such as natural animal-derived notes, have been replaced with synthetic substitutes due to changing consumer philosophies and/or trade restrictions. For instance, vanilla, jasmine, oakmoss, coumarin, birch tar, citrus oils, heliotropin, styrax, and opoponax have all been restricted in some way or banned by the International Fragrance Association [IFRA], or are under consideration for restriction. Unfortunately, many of the IFRA rules are nonsensical. However, technology can sometimes provide a way 'around' the regulations, such as Guerlain using a technique for removing a certain banned molecule from oakmoss while keeping the scent intact. Frequently companies substitute cheaper ingredients as a cost-saving measure (although this is less common with the larger, prestigious fragrance makers), or once-plentiful natural materials become scarce or completely unavailable. Ingredients once thought to be safe are sometimes found to be unsafe or toxic and cannot be used any longer. And finally, reformulation is done at times to 'modernize' the product, bringing the product more in line with current preferences. An example is Dior Homme, which when introduced in 2005 contained a heavy, powdery iris note. When it was reformulated in 2011 the fragrance had a much more subdued iris note.
Reformulation is done mostly within the first decade of a product's life, and many are reformulated in three years or less because of flagging sales, because the manufacturer is 'chasing' the surveys of changing customer preferences or have realized that they made mistakes with the initial release, or because of frequently changing regulations.
In addition, perfumes that rely on natural materials have subtle variations from year to year anyway, such as those with jasmine, whose crop smells different each year year, and it will smell different when grown in one part of the world than when grown elsewhere. Similarly, a lavender grown in Provence, France, will not smell like one grown in Kent, UK. Even without these variations, the fact that fragrances are made in batches means that there will be differences, however slight, from batch to batch. A prime example of this is Creed Aventus, whose batches have definite smell differences.
Perfume houses are reluctant to discard a commercially successful product name, and they tend not to publicize reformulations, usually in fact completely denying any changes. When making changes, they often try to use ingredients that might simulate the old smell. Unlike in most product industries, perfume companies are not required by law to reveal all of the ingredients of their products. They are only required to label materials that are 'known allergens' on the packaging, and they frequently just note 'fragrance' or 'parfum.' Thus they are able to secretly alter their formulas with few if any repercussions. Many people think this practice fits the Meriam-Webster definition of counterfeit: "made in imitation of something else with intent to deceive," and there are common and bitter complaints from fragrance connoisseurs about reformulation.
So how can one find out if a fragrance has been reformulated? Asking a sales associate is usually a waste of time, since they usually either do not know the answer or simply deny flatly that any change was made, and customer service and public relations departments of the perfumeries often do the same. Sometimes product reviews by somewhat objective experts can be helpful. The most direct method is to trust one's own nose, although this also has pitfalls, since a perfume's scent changes gradually as it ages: the last of an old bottle will not smell the same as a new tester of the same fragrance. In addition, most people do not have noses that can easily distinguish differences, and one version is pretty much the same another to them. However, sometimes one may notice a difference but actually prefer the newer formula. For these reasons it is very important for those who care a lot about differences to note especially when a product review was written; the review may have been written about a fragrance which is not the same as the current version with the same name.
Pillars
In perfumery language a pillar fragrance is a standalone fragrance meant to provide significant individual support to a brand. It is an entirely new creation and release with no connection to or affiliation with any existing fragrances within the brand's total collection.
Flankers
A flanker fragrance is a 'sequel' or spin-off fragrance, a version 2.0 that capitalizes on the success of the corresponding pillar one. Some flanker scents are variations on the original (i.e. they might share certain notes), but with one or two key alterations, while others share nothing more than the name or packaging. The most common type of flanker is one that offers a variation of the pillar's main theme and structure but amplifies a particular accord or adds new top or heart notes to alter the overall impression. A symbolic flanker is one in which the scent smells completely different and is merely capitalizing on the name of its predecessor.
Flankers usually have the same name as the original but with another word or two added. Most often flankers are released within one to five years after the pillar fragrance, but sometimes the process is continued. Calvin Klein, for example, has been issuing annual flankers of CK One regularly since 2004. The first flankers appeared in the 1970s, and the practice increased steadily, with nearly 20% of all new launches now being flankers. A recent trend has been the production of flankers for vintage classic fragrances, a way to target a new generation of clients for whom the flanker might act as a 'gateway fragrance,' perhaps leading them to purchasing the original when they are older.
Flankers are usually packaged in the same or a very similar bottle as the pillar, but the bottle might have a different color, finish, or decoration, or the liquid itself is a different color. They often are released as supplementary limited editions, reformulated for a particular use or occasion without replacing the original. Although some flankers may be labelled as having different concentrations, most will have subtitles like 'sport,' 'intense,' or 'nuit.' Many brands release summer versions of popular scents (especially of winter or evening scents), often a 'l'eau' form that is lighter or has added citrus or aquatic notes. Some of these only last as long as the summer season or the holiday gifting period, examples being CK One and Jean Paul Gaultier Classique. Some flankers are meant to capture buyers in new demographics; these might display a softening of the pillar's composition to appeal to a younger population or to specific geographic markets, such as the Asian markets or the Middle Eastern market.
Generally, eau de parfum versions of existing eau de toilette fragrances are not considered flankers. If unsure about whether or not a fragrance is a flanker, the information sometimes can be found on a sticker on the bottom of the bottle. And the batch code is a guide to the year of production, which also can answer the question.
One example in men's fragrances is the pillar fragrance Thierry Mugler A*Men, followed by A*Men Pure Malt (and several others), which added smoky peat and tobacco notes. More recently Mugler released 'liqueur' and 'leather' versions of it. Another example is Paco Rabanne 1 Million for Men (2008), which was followed by a perfume for women, Lady Million (2010) with very similar packaging. A well-known one is Yves Saint Laurent l'Homme, which spawned l'Homme Intense, l'Homme ULtime, l'Homme Sport, and others. Flankers offer brands the opportunity to build upon the popularity of a pillar fragrance, sometimes surpassing the original's commercial success. From a marketing perspective, flankers allow brands to increase market share at a lower cost than would be possible with a new pillar, since tweaking an existing formula and/or bottle design requires much less investment than does all-new market research, composition formulation, and new bottle and packaging design. This is very similar to the release of sequels in the movie industry, in which doubling down on the success of an existing hit film is easier than starting from scratch with a new idea that may or may not be successful. Flankers also provide a means for increased market penetration: fans of the pillar might be committed enough to purchase any subsequent flankers, and people who did not purchase the pillar might be persuaded to buy a more appealing - perhaps lighter or heavier - flanker. Another rationale for flankers is the perceived need to stay relevant and trendy, with the release of something new assuring a strong presence on the fragrance counters.
There are many complaints about flankers, even beyond the simple fact that there are so many of them. There is a general tendency of flankers to 'dumb down' a fragrance, to 'sportify,' 'summer'-ize, or 'oudify' it in a way that lessens the pillar's qualities, although this is not always true. Among discerning, skeptical fragrance fans, flankers are usually considered to be hastily thrown-together products that do not honor the originals. Since everyone knew, for example, that Acqua di Gio has been a best seller every year, it made business sense to just make another cheap citrus-aquatic formula and gamble that it too would sell well, and many were produced.
Well-known flanker producers include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia
Bentley for Men
Bottega Veneta pour Homme
Calvin Klein One
Dior Homme
Guerlain l'Homme
Hermes Terre d'Hermes
Lalique Encre Noire and Hommage
Thierry Mugler A*Men
Tom Ford Portofino Acqua
Reconcentration
With flankers having reached a sort of saturation point in recent years, the perfume industry is increasingly turning to re-concentrating established fragrances as a method of band extension instead of flankers. This process is merely the tweaking of a formula to increase or decrease the ratio of aromatic oils to alcohol in the bottle. The greater the percentage of aromatic compounds, as in an eau de parfum or parfum extrait, the greater the intensity and longevity of the fragrance. Decreasing the percentage of aromatic compounds results in less intensity and shorter longevity, such as an eau de cologne or eau fraiche. Examples of re-concentration include Terre d’Hermes Hermès Eau Tres Fraiche and Parfum, Dior Sauvage Parfum, and Tom Ford Private Blend Intense releases. Re-concentration allows a brand to maintain a pillar fragrance in softer or more amplified strengths, thus appealing to different buyers. This re-concentration, of course, has some impact on the end effect - the scent that is smelled - due to materials smelling differently at varying concentrations, and some notes being disguised by or overpowered by others. However, these changes are not a deliberate attempt by a perfumer to alter the pillar formula, so re-concentrated fragrances are not considered flankers.
Reformulation
Reformulation is different than flanker creation, in that it involves an effort to maintain the integrity of a fragrance while bowing to changing production needs. The smell of the fragrance sometimes stays the same, but sometimes it changes in either scent or performance; and the general reception to this change can be good or bad.
Reformulation of perfume products is very common and frequent, for various reasons. The major reason for reformulation is that some materials, such as natural animal-derived notes, have been replaced with synthetic substitutes due to changing consumer philosophies and/or trade restrictions. For instance, vanilla, jasmine, oakmoss, coumarin, birch tar, citrus oils, heliotropin, styrax, and opoponax have all been restricted in some way or banned by the International Fragrance Association [IFRA], or are under consideration for restriction. Unfortunately, many of the IFRA rules are nonsensical. However, technology can sometimes provide a way 'around' the regulations, such as Guerlain using a technique for removing a certain banned molecule from oakmoss while keeping the scent intact. Frequently companies substitute cheaper ingredients as a cost-saving measure (although this is less common with the larger, prestigious fragrance makers), or once-plentiful natural materials become scarce or completely unavailable. Ingredients once thought to be safe are sometimes found to be unsafe or toxic and cannot be used any longer. And finally, reformulation is done at times to 'modernize' the product, bringing the product more in line with current preferences. An example is Dior Homme, which when introduced in 2005 contained a heavy, powdery iris note. When it was reformulated in 2011 the fragrance had a much more subdued iris note.
Reformulation is done mostly within the first decade of a product's life, and many are reformulated in three years or less because of flagging sales, because the manufacturer is 'chasing' the surveys of changing customer preferences or have realized that they made mistakes with the initial release, or because of frequently changing regulations.
In addition, perfumes that rely on natural materials have subtle variations from year to year anyway, such as those with jasmine, whose crop smells different each year year, and it will smell different when grown in one part of the world than when grown elsewhere. Similarly, a lavender grown in Provence, France, will not smell like one grown in Kent, UK. Even without these variations, the fact that fragrances are made in batches means that there will be differences, however slight, from batch to batch. A prime example of this is Creed Aventus, whose batches have definite smell differences.
Perfume houses are reluctant to discard a commercially successful product name, and they tend not to publicize reformulations, usually in fact completely denying any changes. When making changes, they often try to use ingredients that might simulate the old smell. Unlike in most product industries, perfume companies are not required by law to reveal all of the ingredients of their products. They are only required to label materials that are 'known allergens' on the packaging, and they frequently just note 'fragrance' or 'parfum.' Thus they are able to secretly alter their formulas with few if any repercussions. Many people think this practice fits the Meriam-Webster definition of counterfeit: "made in imitation of something else with intent to deceive," and there are common and bitter complaints from fragrance connoisseurs about reformulation.
So how can one find out if a fragrance has been reformulated? Asking a sales associate is usually a waste of time, since they usually either do not know the answer or simply deny flatly that any change was made, and customer service and public relations departments of the perfumeries often do the same. Sometimes product reviews by somewhat objective experts can be helpful. The most direct method is to trust one's own nose, although this also has pitfalls, since a perfume's scent changes gradually as it ages: the last of an old bottle will not smell the same as a new tester of the same fragrance. In addition, most people do not have noses that can easily distinguish differences, and one version is pretty much the same another to them. However, sometimes one may notice a difference but actually prefer the newer formula. For these reasons it is very important for those who care a lot about differences to note especially when a product review was written; the review may have been written about a fragrance which is not the same as the current version with the same name.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Amber
The word 'amber' comes from the Arabic word 'anbar' (roughly meaning 'grains'). The term originally was used in the 14th century to mean a solid incense composite of resins and spices from the Mideast, north Africa, or India. These have been used for centuries for room potpourri, charm pendants, and religious offerings, generally ground up and blended into soft carrier materials like beeswax. Those from Egypt often are sweet and musky, while mixes from north Africa are known for being more spicy and heady.
Subsequently the term was used in the late 19th century for scents designed to mimic the warm smell of rare ambergris, but at a lower cost, which was possible after the invention of synthetic vanilla. In current use the name no longer means this, although amber and ambergris do share some notes. In addition to referring now to the classical amber scent accord, the name sometimes just denotes the golden color of a blend, resembling that of the semi-precious amber jewel. Aromatic amber scent is also sometimes known as Indian amber, Himalayan amber, omber, or pseudo-ambergris.
Amber Resin
In its fresh non-fossilized form, amber is an aromatic fir tree resin (Pinus succinifera) that has a faint, somewhat sweet, woody, warm, and caramel-like smell. In ancient China, it was customary to burn amber resin for its characteristic 'pinewood' smell during festivities; sometimes it was heated and combined with nitric acid to create an aromatic 'artificial musk.' Fresh amber resin extract is sometimes used now in modern perfumery to anchor more volatile ingredients but only rarely to add scent.
Fossilized Amber
According to most experts, solid fossilized amber has almost no scent at all except when burned. However, some claim that it does have a faint, delicate aroma that is similar to a camphorous mix of lemon and frankincense, especially when tinctured. Rarely, perfumes contain true amber oil or essence which has been extracted by way of a costly 'destructive distillation' process from fossilized amber dust, a byproduct of the amber jewel industry. Such an oil is offered commercially by Eden Botanicals, which says that it comes from fossilized resin of Himalayan or Chinese pine trees and has "smoky, resinous, leathery, woody-dry notes with hints of pine and balsamic overtones." Amber oil is said to dissolve in both alcohol and fixed oils and to make an excellent base note. But amber oils generally tend to smell somewhat charred, and most of the oil is used in health care products rather than perfumery. Most often, when a perfumer claims that a product contains 'fossilized amber,' it has just been used in miniscule amounts for labeling and advertising purposes. One example of a wholesale 'amber essence' that is used relatively commonly by niche 'natural' perfumers contains 'dark amber extract,' sandalwood, labdanum, patchouli essential oil, vetiver essential oil, sunflower oil, and jojoba oil.
Amber Accords
Most commonly, the term amber is used more generically in perfumery, especially in the French classification system, to describe accords or perfumes that are found almost exclusively in the Oriental group and which have in common a warm, slightly powdery, voluptuous, earthy, musky, animalic tone. They sometimes are put into their own category called Amber Oriental. In its common use, amber actually is just a fantasy accord like fougère or chypre. The amber accord is usually created from a mix of resinous plant balsams (classically labdanum with vanilla, plus one or more of benzoin, styrax, balsam of peru, myrrh, copal, tolu, and fir), and/or synthetic chemicals.
The component amounts of amber accords are adjusted by different perfumers, and small amounts of tonka bean, clove, cinnamon, sage, juniper, or flower essences are sometimes added, to give the ambers more variety. The type called Golden Amber is a warm, light, more powdery fragrance rich with vanilla; Dark Amber is sweeter with a touch of spices; and Celestial Amber has a hint of patchouli earthiness. Amber often is used as a base note, and fragrances in which it is found are thought by many to work best during colder months of fall and winter. The labdanum in amber tones is somewhat heavy and opaque, and it can have a tendency to overwhelm other facets, especially in lighter compounds. An amber accord sometimes is used to accent the voluptuous quality of fougère, chypre, and floral compositions, melding with oakmoss and musk or enhancing the sweetness of lavender. Amber also is used frequently to enhance the drydown of a fragrance. In niche fragrances it sometimes appears in a darker, sweeter form and is paired with incense notes. True amber accords are quite versatile, their warm incense undertones adding a dusky, somber quality; while the top notes, reminiscent of freshly cut wood, offer a bright counterpoint. As perfumer Alienor Massenet explains, "Amber notes are warm, and can evoke liquor. But above all, they give depth and sexiness to a fragrance..."
Because of the many variations (and meanings), an amber accord often is difficult to define or describe accurately. And adding to the confusion is the use of the word amber or the phrase 'amber oil' in perfume marketing to simply mean a blend that is somewhat warm and sweet but otherwise has nothing in common with amber accords.
Synthetic Ambers
Several large perfume manufacturing companies (e.g. Firmenich, International Flavors & Fragrances [IFF], Givaudan, Roure) have patented their own synthetic amber accords for use in their house creations, and some of these 'amber bases' are also purchased from them and used by other fragrance makers. These synthetics generally fall into three categories: 'true ambers' (Synarome Ambrarore Absolue, Roure Ambrogène, IFF Ambergrissol, Firmenich Grisambrol), 'labdanum ambers' (Givaudan Ambreinol and Ambergris Synthetique, Firmenich Grisambrène, Naarden Ambre Synthetique), and 'pseudo ambers' that are actually closer in quality to opoponax resin (De Laire Ambre 53, Firmenich Ambreine Samuelsom, Sondes Ambrène).
Amber Xtreme (IFF) is woody, dry, spicy, and sharp, with a 'slightly rancid' wood undertone and a slight ambergris facet that adds volume, depth, and warmth to fragrances. IFF states, "At low levels it combines extremely well with musky notes... for its sensual character. At higher levels its signature is more powerful, and its fresh woody aspects really stand out." Examples of its use in men's fragrances include Avon Absolute by Exclusive, Bruno Banani Loyal Man, David Beckham Inspired by Respect, and Natura K Max.
Ambertonic (IFF) is deep, dry, and amber-woody, with sweet, musky, spicy, and powdery undertones. It is similar in structure and quality to other IFF synthetics such as Cashmeran, Nebulone, Trisamber, and Simfonide. Fragrance examples include Avon Segno, Aramis Special Blend, DKNY Men Summer 2020, Jequiti Malte Amber, and Ralph Lauren Polo Ultra Blue.
Ambrarome (Synarome/NACTIS), or ethyl ester of labdanum, is warm, animalic, leathery, and slightly sweet. Synarome says, "This unique specialty ingredient derived from Cistus ladaniferus gum-resin has been produced by the company since 1926, when it was introduced as an alternative to ambergris tincture. Invaluable in many types of fragrance, especially amber, incense, and chypre types, it contains a material similar in odor to that present in ambergris and is much more strongly animalic than plain labdanum absolute." Examples of masculine fragrances with it are Roja Dove Harrods pour Homme, Sakamichi Bleu Men Ice, Thera Cosmeticos Efesos, and Trussardi Riflesso Blue Vibe LE.
Ambretone (Takasago), used most often in feminine/unisex fragrances, is a sweet, floral, musky synthetic used to replicate amber in Oriental compounds. It is extremely musky and is frequently used in very small amounts in combination with floral, amber, and animalic accords.
Ambrettolide (Givaudan), used in unisex fragrances, is synthesized from a musk found in oil from the ambrette seed (musk mallow, Abelmoschus moschatus). It is rich but delicate, animalic, floral, and fruity. Its warmth and roundness are used to soften blended scent solutions, and because it is extremely tenacious it is a good fixative. Many people are anosmic to it (i.e. unable to smell it at all).
Amberwood (Symrise), although grouped at times with the others, is not really an amber formulation but is used to simulate ambergris. It is used to enhance Oriental, gourmand, or floral scents, sometimes up to percentages as high as 40%. It also is an excellent fixative.
Amber Fragrances for Men
10th Avenue Karl Antony Contigo
Alfred Dunhill Moroccan Amber
Al Haramain Amber Oud Rouge
Al-Rehab Golden Sand
Amouage Library Collection Opus VI
Amouroud Bois d'Orient
Annick Goutal Ambre Fétiche
Axe Signature Suave, Amber Proximity
Azzaro Amber Fever
Baldessarini Ambré
Bath & Body Works Dark Amber
Bond No. 9 Dubai Amber
Bvlgari Le Gemme Ambero
By Killian Amber Oud
Carolina Herrera Amber Desire
Chkoudra Paris Premium Amber Black
Christian Dior Ambre Nuit
Davidoff Silver Shadow
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Eau de Iceberg Amber
Ferrari Amber Essence
Fleurage Libertine
Floris Jermyn Street, 1962, 1976, 1988
Fulton & Roark Shackleford
Halston Man Amber
Jaguar Classic Amber
Joliet Descartes Etourdi
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Mansfield Georges Feghali Monte Carlo Coup de Foudre
Montale Blue Amber
Natura Humor 4
Nautica Midnight Voyage
Nicole Miller for Men
Ottoman Amber
Penhaligon's No. 33, Lothair, Tragedy of Lord George
Porsche Design Paladium
Prada Amber
Profumi del Forte Versilia Vintage Ambra Mediterranea
Rituals Palace d'Ambre
Samba Amber
Serge Lutens Ambre Sultan
Tom Ford Amber Absolute
Van Cleef & Arpels Ambre Imperial
Xerjoff XJ 1861 Zefiro, Oud Stars Mamluk, Melesia
Yardley 442 Active
Zara Ambar, Ambre Noble, Red Temptation, Amber Fusion
The word 'amber' comes from the Arabic word 'anbar' (roughly meaning 'grains'). The term originally was used in the 14th century to mean a solid incense composite of resins and spices from the Mideast, north Africa, or India. These have been used for centuries for room potpourri, charm pendants, and religious offerings, generally ground up and blended into soft carrier materials like beeswax. Those from Egypt often are sweet and musky, while mixes from north Africa are known for being more spicy and heady.
Subsequently the term was used in the late 19th century for scents designed to mimic the warm smell of rare ambergris, but at a lower cost, which was possible after the invention of synthetic vanilla. In current use the name no longer means this, although amber and ambergris do share some notes. In addition to referring now to the classical amber scent accord, the name sometimes just denotes the golden color of a blend, resembling that of the semi-precious amber jewel. Aromatic amber scent is also sometimes known as Indian amber, Himalayan amber, omber, or pseudo-ambergris.
Amber Resin
In its fresh non-fossilized form, amber is an aromatic fir tree resin (Pinus succinifera) that has a faint, somewhat sweet, woody, warm, and caramel-like smell. In ancient China, it was customary to burn amber resin for its characteristic 'pinewood' smell during festivities; sometimes it was heated and combined with nitric acid to create an aromatic 'artificial musk.' Fresh amber resin extract is sometimes used now in modern perfumery to anchor more volatile ingredients but only rarely to add scent.
Fossilized Amber
According to most experts, solid fossilized amber has almost no scent at all except when burned. However, some claim that it does have a faint, delicate aroma that is similar to a camphorous mix of lemon and frankincense, especially when tinctured. Rarely, perfumes contain true amber oil or essence which has been extracted by way of a costly 'destructive distillation' process from fossilized amber dust, a byproduct of the amber jewel industry. Such an oil is offered commercially by Eden Botanicals, which says that it comes from fossilized resin of Himalayan or Chinese pine trees and has "smoky, resinous, leathery, woody-dry notes with hints of pine and balsamic overtones." Amber oil is said to dissolve in both alcohol and fixed oils and to make an excellent base note. But amber oils generally tend to smell somewhat charred, and most of the oil is used in health care products rather than perfumery. Most often, when a perfumer claims that a product contains 'fossilized amber,' it has just been used in miniscule amounts for labeling and advertising purposes. One example of a wholesale 'amber essence' that is used relatively commonly by niche 'natural' perfumers contains 'dark amber extract,' sandalwood, labdanum, patchouli essential oil, vetiver essential oil, sunflower oil, and jojoba oil.
Amber Accords
Most commonly, the term amber is used more generically in perfumery, especially in the French classification system, to describe accords or perfumes that are found almost exclusively in the Oriental group and which have in common a warm, slightly powdery, voluptuous, earthy, musky, animalic tone. They sometimes are put into their own category called Amber Oriental. In its common use, amber actually is just a fantasy accord like fougère or chypre. The amber accord is usually created from a mix of resinous plant balsams (classically labdanum with vanilla, plus one or more of benzoin, styrax, balsam of peru, myrrh, copal, tolu, and fir), and/or synthetic chemicals.
The component amounts of amber accords are adjusted by different perfumers, and small amounts of tonka bean, clove, cinnamon, sage, juniper, or flower essences are sometimes added, to give the ambers more variety. The type called Golden Amber is a warm, light, more powdery fragrance rich with vanilla; Dark Amber is sweeter with a touch of spices; and Celestial Amber has a hint of patchouli earthiness. Amber often is used as a base note, and fragrances in which it is found are thought by many to work best during colder months of fall and winter. The labdanum in amber tones is somewhat heavy and opaque, and it can have a tendency to overwhelm other facets, especially in lighter compounds. An amber accord sometimes is used to accent the voluptuous quality of fougère, chypre, and floral compositions, melding with oakmoss and musk or enhancing the sweetness of lavender. Amber also is used frequently to enhance the drydown of a fragrance. In niche fragrances it sometimes appears in a darker, sweeter form and is paired with incense notes. True amber accords are quite versatile, their warm incense undertones adding a dusky, somber quality; while the top notes, reminiscent of freshly cut wood, offer a bright counterpoint. As perfumer Alienor Massenet explains, "Amber notes are warm, and can evoke liquor. But above all, they give depth and sexiness to a fragrance..."
Because of the many variations (and meanings), an amber accord often is difficult to define or describe accurately. And adding to the confusion is the use of the word amber or the phrase 'amber oil' in perfume marketing to simply mean a blend that is somewhat warm and sweet but otherwise has nothing in common with amber accords.
Synthetic Ambers
Several large perfume manufacturing companies (e.g. Firmenich, International Flavors & Fragrances [IFF], Givaudan, Roure) have patented their own synthetic amber accords for use in their house creations, and some of these 'amber bases' are also purchased from them and used by other fragrance makers. These synthetics generally fall into three categories: 'true ambers' (Synarome Ambrarore Absolue, Roure Ambrogène, IFF Ambergrissol, Firmenich Grisambrol), 'labdanum ambers' (Givaudan Ambreinol and Ambergris Synthetique, Firmenich Grisambrène, Naarden Ambre Synthetique), and 'pseudo ambers' that are actually closer in quality to opoponax resin (De Laire Ambre 53, Firmenich Ambreine Samuelsom, Sondes Ambrène).
Amber Xtreme (IFF) is woody, dry, spicy, and sharp, with a 'slightly rancid' wood undertone and a slight ambergris facet that adds volume, depth, and warmth to fragrances. IFF states, "At low levels it combines extremely well with musky notes... for its sensual character. At higher levels its signature is more powerful, and its fresh woody aspects really stand out." Examples of its use in men's fragrances include Avon Absolute by Exclusive, Bruno Banani Loyal Man, David Beckham Inspired by Respect, and Natura K Max.
Ambertonic (IFF) is deep, dry, and amber-woody, with sweet, musky, spicy, and powdery undertones. It is similar in structure and quality to other IFF synthetics such as Cashmeran, Nebulone, Trisamber, and Simfonide. Fragrance examples include Avon Segno, Aramis Special Blend, DKNY Men Summer 2020, Jequiti Malte Amber, and Ralph Lauren Polo Ultra Blue.
Ambrarome (Synarome/NACTIS), or ethyl ester of labdanum, is warm, animalic, leathery, and slightly sweet. Synarome says, "This unique specialty ingredient derived from Cistus ladaniferus gum-resin has been produced by the company since 1926, when it was introduced as an alternative to ambergris tincture. Invaluable in many types of fragrance, especially amber, incense, and chypre types, it contains a material similar in odor to that present in ambergris and is much more strongly animalic than plain labdanum absolute." Examples of masculine fragrances with it are Roja Dove Harrods pour Homme, Sakamichi Bleu Men Ice, Thera Cosmeticos Efesos, and Trussardi Riflesso Blue Vibe LE.
Ambretone (Takasago), used most often in feminine/unisex fragrances, is a sweet, floral, musky synthetic used to replicate amber in Oriental compounds. It is extremely musky and is frequently used in very small amounts in combination with floral, amber, and animalic accords.
Ambrettolide (Givaudan), used in unisex fragrances, is synthesized from a musk found in oil from the ambrette seed (musk mallow, Abelmoschus moschatus). It is rich but delicate, animalic, floral, and fruity. Its warmth and roundness are used to soften blended scent solutions, and because it is extremely tenacious it is a good fixative. Many people are anosmic to it (i.e. unable to smell it at all).
Amberwood (Symrise), although grouped at times with the others, is not really an amber formulation but is used to simulate ambergris. It is used to enhance Oriental, gourmand, or floral scents, sometimes up to percentages as high as 40%. It also is an excellent fixative.
Amber Fragrances for Men
10th Avenue Karl Antony Contigo
Alfred Dunhill Moroccan Amber
Al Haramain Amber Oud Rouge
Al-Rehab Golden Sand
Amouage Library Collection Opus VI
Amouroud Bois d'Orient
Annick Goutal Ambre Fétiche
Axe Signature Suave, Amber Proximity
Azzaro Amber Fever
Baldessarini Ambré
Bath & Body Works Dark Amber
Bond No. 9 Dubai Amber
Bvlgari Le Gemme Ambero
By Killian Amber Oud
Carolina Herrera Amber Desire
Chkoudra Paris Premium Amber Black
Christian Dior Ambre Nuit
Davidoff Silver Shadow
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Eau de Iceberg Amber
Ferrari Amber Essence
Fleurage Libertine
Floris Jermyn Street, 1962, 1976, 1988
Fulton & Roark Shackleford
Halston Man Amber
Jaguar Classic Amber
Joliet Descartes Etourdi
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender
Mansfield Georges Feghali Monte Carlo Coup de Foudre
Montale Blue Amber
Natura Humor 4
Nautica Midnight Voyage
Nicole Miller for Men
Ottoman Amber
Penhaligon's No. 33, Lothair, Tragedy of Lord George
Porsche Design Paladium
Prada Amber
Profumi del Forte Versilia Vintage Ambra Mediterranea
Rituals Palace d'Ambre
Samba Amber
Serge Lutens Ambre Sultan
Tom Ford Amber Absolute
Van Cleef & Arpels Ambre Imperial
Xerjoff XJ 1861 Zefiro, Oud Stars Mamluk, Melesia
Yardley 442 Active
Zara Ambar, Ambre Noble, Red Temptation, Amber Fusion
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Smelling Your Own Fragrance
"Watch it now, don't be smellin' yourself now while you out there, your smell mite be irreconcilable, take over ya."
It is not really understood completely why we become used to smells. We notice how someone else's house smells, and we can easily detect unexpected or strange scents in our home. But we don't notice the way our own homes or our own clothes or bodies usually smell. Says Pamela Dalton, a cognitive psychologist who has researched scent memory and this phenomenon of 'nose blindness' for over 20 years, "It's actually a very robust phenomenon. It's why people go on vacation and come back and say, 'Oh, it's so musty in here - I'd better open some windows.'" It's probable that the house always smells like that, and they're just desensitized to it until being away for a period of time.
This phenomenon is known as sensory adaptation, and it’s something we experience most intensely with smells. “That’s not as true for any other sensory experience,” says Dalton. The closest comparison is hearing. If you’re working near a construction site, for example, you can tune out the noise after a while. “But," she says, "If I ask you, ‘Do you hear that?’ you can refocus that part of your brain. That’s not so true with odor.”
In a similar way, we lose the perception of our cologne or aftershave. When an odor is first smelled, the scent receptors send a signal to the olfactory bulb in the brain's limbic system, an area associated with emotion, which determines how it will be processed and how one will feel and behave about that particular scent. But the nasal receptors essentially turn off after around two breaths, and perception of the scent - no matter how strong it is initially - starts to fade. Within ten minutes, perception of most smells has begun to decrease significantly. In one of Dalton's studies, subjects were given a pleasantly pine-scented air freshener for three weeks, and every week they became less sensitive to the odor. Although the freshener remained potent, the subjects would ask, "Are you sure it's still working?"
Scientific studies suggest that our inability to smell factors to which we are habitually exposed is actually an evolutionary advantage: becoming desensitized to them allows the individual to detect even the slightest change in their environment. The nose is 'hard-wired' to pick up signals that notify us of environmental changes that might jeopardize our comfort or safety. When your brain has perceived an odor to be nonthreatening (i.e. not representing rotten or poisonous food, smoke from a brush fire, or the approach of a predator - or, in more modern times, burning of food or a gas leak), the receptors for it switch off, because there is no recognized need to pay close attention to it. Conversely, such selectivity allows us to experience pleasure with less usual scents, such as those of bakeries or coffee shops
This raises a question about the longevity of a fragrance one is wearing. If you spray or rub it on in the morning, and it seems by evening as if it has disappeared, has it really, or have you just become used to it? The odds are that others would still be able to smell your scent, because it is less familiar to them. This phenomenon can also impact your reaction to a new bottle of your usual perfume. Dalton notes that the small changes that we detect in habitual scents are magnified by our noses – causing us to lose the actual scent, and instead to zero in on a seemingly huge change. And whatever the fragrance compound, each batch of perfume is unique. Environmental and other factors ensure that no two perfume batches will ever smell perfectly identical, despite an unchanged formula. To those not smelling the perfume every moment of every day, each batch does smell the same. But if you pair those small variances with a hypersensitive nose, you may begin to wonder: has the perfume changed? Has my skin changed? Likely, the answer is “no” to both questions. It is just the natural phenomenon of getting used to smells that allowed you to detect a slight difference.
Compounding this complexity, especially for perfumers, is the fact that various scents have differing - and sometimes mixed - trigger strengths and temporal effects on the receptors. For example one widely used, naturally occurring factor which smells of violets, beta-ionone, is added to fragrances to boost the overall fragrance strength and to bond floral note to woody ones. But it also has a ability to temporarily desensitize the nose receptors of individuals with a certain mutation in the DNA sequence of an odorant receptor gene.
There are, of course, different strengths of fragrance formulations and compounds, and they last for differing lengths of time. Each individual scent molecule has its own unique density, which affects its perceptual lifespan. In addition, different skin types affect how long a given fragrance lasts. If you want to get a clear impression about how long your fragrance actually lasts, spray or drip it on a tissue or a piece of fabric and leave it in another room. Visit it after a few hours, and you will be able to experience the same scent strength that other people experience when they encounter you wearing that fragrance after the same amount of time.
Solutions to Rejuvenate the Sense of Smell
According to Dalton, taking a break from a fragrance and then returning to it will sometimes restore its perception, much like the previous description of going away from home on vacation. If you have one favorite fragrance, it is recommended that you take a 2-3 week break from it every now and then, perhaps wearing no fragrance at all. Or if you like several fragrances, you can try alternating them every other week or two. This can prevent your nose from becoming too accustomed to each scent. Another approach that sometimes works is to change to an ancillary body product (such as body lotion, shower oil or gel, etc.) in your usual fragrance's range. Since these are formulated slightly differently from the one you regularly use, they may allow you to pick up the scent perception again. In addition, there are helpful charts/guides online and in department stores that can guide you to a similar but slightly different fragrance, possibly in the same family, that you might enjoy until you can subsequently reacquaint yourself with your usual product.
Another approach is to use a traditional, old-fashioned cologne rather than a more modern one. While the older ones tended to be more complex and evolved while on the skin, the newer 'linear' ones do not change; they smell the same as time passes, so they more quickly become part of the 'constant environment.'
And to make the odor receptors more sensitive temporarily, exercise enough to increase your heart rate; perfumers have been known to run up and down stairs before testing a fragrance with their nose.
It also helps to consciously and simply pay close attention to smells. According to Dalton, worrying or being overly concerned about smells actually seems to make the nose more sensitive. In a study, she expose three groups of people to the same scent. She told one group the smell was a 'rainforest exact,' a second group that it was just a standard scent used frequently in her lab, and the third group that it was a potent industrial solvent. The 'rainforest extract' group adapted to the smell fastest, while the group that was told that it was a solvent - that is, something negative - were slowest to adapt to it. So it seems that the more you focus on smelling - and perhaps paying close attention to your cologne and aftershave qualities - the more perceptive your nose will become.
"Watch it now, don't be smellin' yourself now while you out there, your smell mite be irreconcilable, take over ya."
It is not really understood completely why we become used to smells. We notice how someone else's house smells, and we can easily detect unexpected or strange scents in our home. But we don't notice the way our own homes or our own clothes or bodies usually smell. Says Pamela Dalton, a cognitive psychologist who has researched scent memory and this phenomenon of 'nose blindness' for over 20 years, "It's actually a very robust phenomenon. It's why people go on vacation and come back and say, 'Oh, it's so musty in here - I'd better open some windows.'" It's probable that the house always smells like that, and they're just desensitized to it until being away for a period of time.
This phenomenon is known as sensory adaptation, and it’s something we experience most intensely with smells. “That’s not as true for any other sensory experience,” says Dalton. The closest comparison is hearing. If you’re working near a construction site, for example, you can tune out the noise after a while. “But," she says, "If I ask you, ‘Do you hear that?’ you can refocus that part of your brain. That’s not so true with odor.”
In a similar way, we lose the perception of our cologne or aftershave. When an odor is first smelled, the scent receptors send a signal to the olfactory bulb in the brain's limbic system, an area associated with emotion, which determines how it will be processed and how one will feel and behave about that particular scent. But the nasal receptors essentially turn off after around two breaths, and perception of the scent - no matter how strong it is initially - starts to fade. Within ten minutes, perception of most smells has begun to decrease significantly. In one of Dalton's studies, subjects were given a pleasantly pine-scented air freshener for three weeks, and every week they became less sensitive to the odor. Although the freshener remained potent, the subjects would ask, "Are you sure it's still working?"
Scientific studies suggest that our inability to smell factors to which we are habitually exposed is actually an evolutionary advantage: becoming desensitized to them allows the individual to detect even the slightest change in their environment. The nose is 'hard-wired' to pick up signals that notify us of environmental changes that might jeopardize our comfort or safety. When your brain has perceived an odor to be nonthreatening (i.e. not representing rotten or poisonous food, smoke from a brush fire, or the approach of a predator - or, in more modern times, burning of food or a gas leak), the receptors for it switch off, because there is no recognized need to pay close attention to it. Conversely, such selectivity allows us to experience pleasure with less usual scents, such as those of bakeries or coffee shops
This raises a question about the longevity of a fragrance one is wearing. If you spray or rub it on in the morning, and it seems by evening as if it has disappeared, has it really, or have you just become used to it? The odds are that others would still be able to smell your scent, because it is less familiar to them. This phenomenon can also impact your reaction to a new bottle of your usual perfume. Dalton notes that the small changes that we detect in habitual scents are magnified by our noses – causing us to lose the actual scent, and instead to zero in on a seemingly huge change. And whatever the fragrance compound, each batch of perfume is unique. Environmental and other factors ensure that no two perfume batches will ever smell perfectly identical, despite an unchanged formula. To those not smelling the perfume every moment of every day, each batch does smell the same. But if you pair those small variances with a hypersensitive nose, you may begin to wonder: has the perfume changed? Has my skin changed? Likely, the answer is “no” to both questions. It is just the natural phenomenon of getting used to smells that allowed you to detect a slight difference.
Compounding this complexity, especially for perfumers, is the fact that various scents have differing - and sometimes mixed - trigger strengths and temporal effects on the receptors. For example one widely used, naturally occurring factor which smells of violets, beta-ionone, is added to fragrances to boost the overall fragrance strength and to bond floral note to woody ones. But it also has a ability to temporarily desensitize the nose receptors of individuals with a certain mutation in the DNA sequence of an odorant receptor gene.
There are, of course, different strengths of fragrance formulations and compounds, and they last for differing lengths of time. Each individual scent molecule has its own unique density, which affects its perceptual lifespan. In addition, different skin types affect how long a given fragrance lasts. If you want to get a clear impression about how long your fragrance actually lasts, spray or drip it on a tissue or a piece of fabric and leave it in another room. Visit it after a few hours, and you will be able to experience the same scent strength that other people experience when they encounter you wearing that fragrance after the same amount of time.
Solutions to Rejuvenate the Sense of Smell
According to Dalton, taking a break from a fragrance and then returning to it will sometimes restore its perception, much like the previous description of going away from home on vacation. If you have one favorite fragrance, it is recommended that you take a 2-3 week break from it every now and then, perhaps wearing no fragrance at all. Or if you like several fragrances, you can try alternating them every other week or two. This can prevent your nose from becoming too accustomed to each scent. Another approach that sometimes works is to change to an ancillary body product (such as body lotion, shower oil or gel, etc.) in your usual fragrance's range. Since these are formulated slightly differently from the one you regularly use, they may allow you to pick up the scent perception again. In addition, there are helpful charts/guides online and in department stores that can guide you to a similar but slightly different fragrance, possibly in the same family, that you might enjoy until you can subsequently reacquaint yourself with your usual product.
Another approach is to use a traditional, old-fashioned cologne rather than a more modern one. While the older ones tended to be more complex and evolved while on the skin, the newer 'linear' ones do not change; they smell the same as time passes, so they more quickly become part of the 'constant environment.'
And to make the odor receptors more sensitive temporarily, exercise enough to increase your heart rate; perfumers have been known to run up and down stairs before testing a fragrance with their nose.
It also helps to consciously and simply pay close attention to smells. According to Dalton, worrying or being overly concerned about smells actually seems to make the nose more sensitive. In a study, she expose three groups of people to the same scent. She told one group the smell was a 'rainforest exact,' a second group that it was just a standard scent used frequently in her lab, and the third group that it was a potent industrial solvent. The 'rainforest extract' group adapted to the smell fastest, while the group that was told that it was a solvent - that is, something negative - were slowest to adapt to it. So it seems that the more you focus on smelling - and perhaps paying close attention to your cologne and aftershave qualities - the more perceptive your nose will become.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Saffron
Saffron, known as 'red gold,' is by weight the most expensive spice in the world. It has been used for centuries for its complex aroma, earthy flavor, and deep yellow color. It comes from stigmas (pistils) of the reddish-purple flowers of the saffron Crocus (Crocus sativus), a perennial evergreen Eurasian plant in the Iris family. The flowers appear in October and are harvested later in the fall. Each flower has three threadlike female stigmas that contain over 150 aromatic chemicals, as well as two male stamens.
Stigmas are picked early in the morning from closed flowers, before they wilt in the heat. The fresh red stigma 'threads' can be used for commercial coloring processes but are not fragrant, although the flower itself is said to smell like sea air. For aroma use, the stigmas are dried and quickly sealed in airtight containers because when dried they are extremely sensitive to environmental fluctuations. The stigmas must be dried and heated over fire to make the scent-containing vessels burst open, and to cause a chemical change that creates safranal, the primary odor component. This is similar to tobacco processing. As saffron ages, it loses color, but the aroma intensifies, and this cannot be completely stopped regardless of the method of storage. The process can be accelerated in conditions of warmth, humidity, and light; and it can be slowed by storage at a relatively dry, constant 20 degrees Celsius, in the dark, and enclosed. Saffron can be frozen well, but refrigeration is not recommended. Properly stored saffron is best used within a year but can be good for up to 2 years.
Because of the selective breeding of the domestic plant, it is sterile, unable to produce viable seeds, and must be propagated artificially. It grows from bulb-like corm clusters that form underground and are dug up, broken apart into smaller cormlets, and replanted each year after the blossoms fade. The plant is cultivated and harvested by hand (with 40 hours of labor needed to produce 1 kilogram of spice), making it extremely labor-intensive and contributing to its cost. During the harvest, each 100 acres of crocus flowers can provide work for 250-300 people on small family farms.
Probably native to Crete (or Greece or Asia minor) as 'wild saffron' (C. cartwrightianus), it was subsequently domesticated and propagated around 2500 BC throughout southern Asia. It appeared in Mediterranean cultures by 1600-1500 BC, and its use was documented there for clothing dyes, perfumes and potpourris, cosmetics, cream and ointments, religious offerings, and medical treatments. The plant was introduced into North Africa and Europe by Roman colonists but then disappeared for centuries. It reappeared in Europe in the 7th or 8th century, after the Islamic conquest of Spain, and it then became widely cultured in Spain and Portugal, where it was known as the Alicanate or Valencia crocus. In the 12th to 14th centuries it became popular throughout Europe, with spice merchants becoming known as 'saffron grocers.' The 14th-century Black Death caused demand for saffron-based folk medications to spike, and Europe imported larged quantities of it from the Mediterranean. Fears of rampant saffron piracy during this time spurred corm cultivation in Switzerland, from which it then spread. The English town of Saffron Walden, named for its specialty crop, emerged as a major growing center in the 16th and 17th centuries, but it was abandoned eventually when labor costs became prohibitive. Dutch immigrants introduced saffron to the Americas by the 1730s, and cultivation spread through Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this crop until the War of 1812, when merchant vessels were attacked and destroyed. Saffron cultivation has continued to the present in Pennsylvania, mainly in Lancaster county.
Wholesale prices of saffron can vary up to tenfold depending upon various factors, commanding between $2,000 and $10,000 or more per kilogram. There is a long history of adulteration, mixing in extraneous substances or just saffron's tasteless and odorless yellow styles, which can add up to 30% to the weight; or adding viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil to increase weight. The powdered form is often cut commercially with other substances of similar natural or dyed color, such as marigold, turmeric, safflower, or gardenia in an attempt to keep the price down. These are known as fake, dyer's, or bastard saffron. Sometimes a higher-grade saffron would be mixed with a lower, cheaper one but labeled only as the higher type. Even today, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often bought wholesale and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports, the final mix then marketed retail as pure Kashmiri product. In 16th century Germany, saffron was valued so highly that people convicted of adulterating it were sometimes burned at the stake or buried alive (along with their diluted product).
Good quality saffron threads should be strongly red in color, with yellow only at the lower part where they join the plant and slightly lighter orange-red tips. An average of 570 stigmas (from 190 flowers) can be required to produce a single gram of fresh saffron, and half a kilogram of the fresh powder yields 5-6 grams of dried spice. Saffron is available with different qualities depending upon where it is grown and the local growing conditions. As recently as the 1980s, Spain dominated the market, but Iran's production overtook it because of the cheaper cost. About 90% now comes from Iran, with 7% from Indian Kashmir, and only 1% from Spain. The remaining 2% is grown in Morocco, Switzerland, France, Italy, Greece, and Afghanistan. The varying climatic conditions and differences in growing, harvesting, and drying processes (to suit their local climate and soil) result in different essential oil contents and varying color and aroma intensities. Kashmiri saffron, for instance, is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue. Recent sanctions against Iran provided huge challenges for Iranian companies trying to export saffron to the U.S. and Europe. However, in mid-January 2016 the specific sanctions were lifted, allowing Iran to export it freely.
Natural red coloring is the most important indicator of saffron overall quality, with the two other indicators being dryness and aroma. Top quality saffron is dry and brittle, never soft and spongy. Lower quality saffron tends to have a higher moisture content, mainly because the yellow styles actually absorb moisture and can prevent proper stigma drying. Producers sometimes toast the saffron to counteract this. The quality of saffron from Iran, Spain, and Kashmir, is graded according to strength of aroma, from strongest (red stigma tips only), through medium strengths (red stigma, with a little yellow through a large amount of yellow style), to the weakest (yellow style only). True top-quality Spanish saffron, with the official designation 'Mancha,' is still considered by many to be the best in the world, but much of the 'Spanish' saffron sold is actually just a mixture of a small amount of a Spanish grade with a larger amount of an Iranian variety. Kashmir saffron usually is more woody, while the Iranian one is more floral. Countries producing less saffron do not have specialized words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labor charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron. In addition to quality descriptions based on how it is picked and separated, saffron may be categorized by certified laboratory measurements of the chemicals crocin (color), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (aroma). However, although wholesale market prices can follow from these spectrophotometric categories, little of this laboratory information is included in product packaging. Regional saffron thread types are labeled at times according to government-imposed standards depending upon their particular distinct qualities, including thread length and shape, with trade names protected by law. Various 'boutique' crops, some organically grown, have been available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, and the United States. Increasing numbers of growers, traders, and consumers reject lab testing numbers or government labels, and even the picking grades, preferring more holistic methods that involve periodic sampling of batches of threads for various traits, in a way similar to that practiced by experienced wine tasters.
Global saffron demand is projected to increase for at least the next 6 years, but overall production has fallen due to decreases in Asian and Middle Eastern rainfall and to the Coronavirus pandemic. While production has been government-restricted in the past to a limited geographical area in the Union territory of Indian, recent news reports have noted that the Pampore region of the Indian Kashmir Valley, often called the 'saffron bowl,' may expand commercially into the northeast area of the country. Plants from seeds transported to Sikkim and acclimatized there are now flowering, and trials are also underway in other areas. Thus it is possible that the total crop output could increase and possibly lower the world wholesale price.
The crocus plant name comes from the pre-Greek Assyrian word krokos, meaning yellow, and the name of the spice is from the Persian word za'fran for 'gold strung,' the subsequent Latin form safranum, and the derivative 12th-century Old French term safran.
Previously saffron was used mainly in the form of tinctures, obtained by heating the stigmas with ethanol. More recently, saffron essential oil or attar has been extracted by enfleurage, an ancient and slow cold process in which flowers or flower parts are laid gently on a thin layer of a fat such as shea butter, which is reapplied each day for a month or so until the fat is saturated with the scent. This fat, called a 'pomade,' is then washed repeatedly in alcohol and chilled and filtered several times to make the extract. However, the most concentrated and stable single-note essential oil, absolute, or concrete now can be obtained through steam/hydro-distillation or supercritical CO2 extraction.
Saffron is a somewhat ambiguous perfume note. The basic tone is a warm, woody, leathery-earthy, somewhat sweet, hay-like scent with violet and tobacco facets, and described as soft, rich and intimate. It is said to give notes of metallic or musky honey and hints of coumarin, hay, and grass. However, it also has a unique quality, a phenolic leathery and iodine ('medical') nuance that reminds some people of hospital smells. According to perfumer Dawn Spencer Hurwitz, "Saffron is a unique perfume material not the least for its multi-faceted nature. Since it's ultimately a flower, it has a wonderful way of adding a floral bouquet to the heart of a fragrance as well as acting as a catalyst for spices, citruses, and resins. Saffron also has a great affinity for the indolic and the animalic; it does wonderful things with animal notes in the base." Saffron blends particularly well with cedar and agarwood, especially in masculine fragrances and autumn mixtures, as well as with rose and other florals. Saffron is used in perfumery mainly as a nuancer and modifier.
Many modern Oriental and oud perfumes and attars contain notes of saffron. True saffron attar, now relatively rare, contains the full range of saffron volatiles co-distilled in a sandalwood medium. Saffron attar mixes well with frangipani, magnolia, flower of paradise, gardenia, and jasmine, and it complements other extracts such as orris, tobacco, opoponax, and osmanthus. The attar oil lasts for 6-8 hours on skin and may last more than 24 hours on clothing (but can stain them).
By volume, saffron's characteristic scent is due mainly to safranal (up to 70%), with contribution from a number of other aromatic ketones and aldehydes. (The most powerful individual chemical factor in the fragrance is a second molecule called 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-1,5-cyclohexadiene-1-one, which also is, interestingly, the unique pheromone of the bark beetle.) In the West, perfume formulators generally now use less expensive synthesized safranal in most of their products rather than the natural product. Safranal is a difficult note to use, its dry and harsh tone at higher dosages making it dominate a composition. Safraleine (Givaudan) is a similar synthetic molecule that evokes the lush, leathery-suede, bittersweet tones of saffron. It has spicy, strong, hot-leather and tobacco facets, with a floral rose aspect. Safraleine is used primarily in unisex fragrances. Safranal's concentration in perfumes is limited not only by cost; it also is restricted by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA) to 0.005% in products with skin contact, due its sensitizing and irritating properties. The Brazilian company Evolva has successfully developed synthetic yeast that can cost-effectively produce each of the chemical components of natural saffron through fermentation, and its products are expected to be launched soon. This could lower the commercial cost of using saffron but will have a devastating effect on the saffron farmers, especially in Iran and Kashmir. Says the company, "Producing the key saffron components by fermentation has three main benefits. Firstly, it will allow saffron to be available at a much lower price than currently, which will both expand existing markets and open new ones. Secondly it will eliminate the many complexities involved in the current supply chain. Finally, by making each of the key components separately, it will enable the production of customized forms that are for example particularly rich in aroma, taste or colour and that can be adapted to specific food formulations and regional preferences."
Egyptian physicians were using saffron as a cure-all by 1600 BC; and Egyptian dancers wore wax cones with saffron on their heads, which melted and perfumed their hair and faces while they danced. It was prized for its aphrodisiac properties, and Cleopatra was said to bathe in saffron before romantic meetings with men. However, it was also found that in large concentrations, it produced narcotic effects, which could be deadly. It was used in India as a facial skin mask to brighten the complexion and lighten dark spots. Greeks described Zeus as having a bed of saffron, indicating great wealth. They used it in perfumery, often as a single note, and it was traded throughout the Mediterranean by them and by the Phoenicians. During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his army's infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds, and he washed his hair with it. Romans spiced their foods with saffron and perfumed their baths and marriage beds with it, and they tossed it around on the floors of public places for special occasions. Ladies in the court of Henry VIII dyed their hair with saffron until the king, fearing it would reduce his supply of saffron for cooking, banned the practice.
Saffron is still used medicinally, including as a narcotic medication, in regions of Asia and the Mediterranean. In the modern West it has been used in the production of some medicines, and research suggests its value in many applications. Its derivative safranal has been shown to be an effective anticonvulsant. Research has suggested that the crocin in saffron can trigger cell death in a variety of cancers, including leukemia, ovarian carcinoma, and colon carcinoma. Studies have shown that it slows tumor growth and extends lifespan in rats with cancer, and one study indicated that it may be significantly less likely to cause birth defects when given to pregnant women than all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA), making it a viable alternative for treating some cancers in women of childbearing age. Other studies have shown that saffron has strong antioxidant properties that can neutralize free radicals which are by-products of aging, boosting immune system health. Two of its components, crocetin and crocin, seem to improve memory and learning skills in learning-impaired rats, suggesting that it may be useful in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Several studies confirm that saffron relieves mild depression, anxiety, and social phobia, especially in adolescents. It helps to reduce skin scarring, including acne scarring. Saffron has been shown to improve visual acuity, especially in early macular degeneration. And saffron contains compounds that are shown to stimulate the endocrine system, regulate insulin production, and reduced cholesterol levels, improving hormone balance and overall health. Finally, studies suggest that it mitigates pain during narcotic withdrawal, can improve injured peripheral nerve function, and can relieve arthritis and gout pain.
There are no known side effects or health hazards associated with the recommended oral dosages of saffron preparations in healthy, non-pregnant individuals, but at higher doses (above 12g) it can cause kidney damage, central nervous system paralysis, and even death. It should not be used in pregnant women because it can cause uterine contractions.
Saffron attar is commonly used in Ayurvedic medicine for a large number of ailments and in aromatherapy because of its warm and mood-soothing aroma. It is used still in Southwest Asia as an aphrodisiac and to improve sexual function, especially in those with depression.
Bittersweet picrocrocin is mainly responsible for the pungent, hay-like flavor of saffron, whose use in foods has been recorded since at least 2500 BC. Sumerians, Minoans, and Egyptians spiced foods with saffron, and they actively traded in it throughout the Mideast. Safranal also contributes in a minor way to the flavor. The distinctive water-soluble color of saffron is important for some foods in addition to its flavoring, especially in Mediterranean foods such as Spanish saffron rice and paella, Italian risotto, and the classic Provençal dish bouillabaisse, as well as in sweets and ice creams in the Middle East and India.
Alpha-crocin and carotenes are responsible for saffron's color, and their content is highest in fresh, undried threads. Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000-year-old cave art in Iran. The Egyptians dyed wrapping cloths of mummies with it, adding urine to preserve the golden color. Saffron has long been used by Buddhist monks, especially those from Tibet, for dying their robes, in addition to its use in their religious ceremonies. Old copies of the Koran and Tibetan scrolls indicate that scribes used saffron to make inks, and it was mixed with egg white by the Greeks and Chinese to make a dye for illuminating important manuscripts.
Masculine perfume products that contain significant saffron include the following:
Amouage Epic Man, Lyric Man
Amouroud Oud After Dark, Oud du Jour, Oud Tabac
Byredo Accord Oud, Black Saffron, Lil Fleur, Reine de Nuit
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria
Cerruti l'Essence
Cumaru Raiz L’Occitane Au Brésil
Davidoff Silver Shadow, Leather Blend
Dzintars Strong Man
Ermenegildo Zegna Persian Saffron
Escada Magnetism
Fragrance du Bois Arabesque Attar, Cannabis Intense, Oud du Bois Attar, Petales de Cashmere, Rose du Bois Attar, Saharaa Oud
Francesca dell'Oro Very Tight
Francis Kurkdjian Oud, Baccarat Rouge 540
Giorgio Armani Summer Mania, Oud Royal, Mania
Henry Jacques White Saffron Or
House of Sillage Dignified
Hugo Boss Bottled Oud Saffron
Initio Oud for Greatness
Issey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey
Jacques Bogart One Man Show Ruby
Junaid Jamshed Oudh Qadim
Korres Saffron Spices
Marc-Antoine Barrois B683
Marly Godolphin, Habdan
Massimo Dutti Kashbah Sunset
Molton Brown Mesmerising Oudh Accord
Montale Aoud Musk
New York Amber Bond No. 9
Nishane Musiqa Oud, Nefs, Safran Colognise
Penhaligon's Halfeti, No. 33, Trad Routes Cairo, Vaara
Perfume Calligraphy Saffron Aramis
Prada Amber pour Homme
Rasasi La Yuqawam
Réveur pour Homme
Roja Aoud, Amber Aoud, Qatar, Sultanate of Oman
Swedoft Royal Satisfaction
Ted Lapidus Black Extreme
Versace Man, Dylan Blue
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Vince Camuto Eterno
Widian Arabia, Delma, Gold II Sahara, Liwa
Xerjoff Blue Hope, Casamorati Dolce Amalfi, 1888, Oud Stars Gao, Wardasina
Yanbal Jaque
Yves St. Laurent Cuir
Zara Red Temptation
Saffron, known as 'red gold,' is by weight the most expensive spice in the world. It has been used for centuries for its complex aroma, earthy flavor, and deep yellow color. It comes from stigmas (pistils) of the reddish-purple flowers of the saffron Crocus (Crocus sativus), a perennial evergreen Eurasian plant in the Iris family. The flowers appear in October and are harvested later in the fall. Each flower has three threadlike female stigmas that contain over 150 aromatic chemicals, as well as two male stamens.
Stigmas are picked early in the morning from closed flowers, before they wilt in the heat. The fresh red stigma 'threads' can be used for commercial coloring processes but are not fragrant, although the flower itself is said to smell like sea air. For aroma use, the stigmas are dried and quickly sealed in airtight containers because when dried they are extremely sensitive to environmental fluctuations. The stigmas must be dried and heated over fire to make the scent-containing vessels burst open, and to cause a chemical change that creates safranal, the primary odor component. This is similar to tobacco processing. As saffron ages, it loses color, but the aroma intensifies, and this cannot be completely stopped regardless of the method of storage. The process can be accelerated in conditions of warmth, humidity, and light; and it can be slowed by storage at a relatively dry, constant 20 degrees Celsius, in the dark, and enclosed. Saffron can be frozen well, but refrigeration is not recommended. Properly stored saffron is best used within a year but can be good for up to 2 years.
Because of the selective breeding of the domestic plant, it is sterile, unable to produce viable seeds, and must be propagated artificially. It grows from bulb-like corm clusters that form underground and are dug up, broken apart into smaller cormlets, and replanted each year after the blossoms fade. The plant is cultivated and harvested by hand (with 40 hours of labor needed to produce 1 kilogram of spice), making it extremely labor-intensive and contributing to its cost. During the harvest, each 100 acres of crocus flowers can provide work for 250-300 people on small family farms.
Probably native to Crete (or Greece or Asia minor) as 'wild saffron' (C. cartwrightianus), it was subsequently domesticated and propagated around 2500 BC throughout southern Asia. It appeared in Mediterranean cultures by 1600-1500 BC, and its use was documented there for clothing dyes, perfumes and potpourris, cosmetics, cream and ointments, religious offerings, and medical treatments. The plant was introduced into North Africa and Europe by Roman colonists but then disappeared for centuries. It reappeared in Europe in the 7th or 8th century, after the Islamic conquest of Spain, and it then became widely cultured in Spain and Portugal, where it was known as the Alicanate or Valencia crocus. In the 12th to 14th centuries it became popular throughout Europe, with spice merchants becoming known as 'saffron grocers.' The 14th-century Black Death caused demand for saffron-based folk medications to spike, and Europe imported larged quantities of it from the Mediterranean. Fears of rampant saffron piracy during this time spurred corm cultivation in Switzerland, from which it then spread. The English town of Saffron Walden, named for its specialty crop, emerged as a major growing center in the 16th and 17th centuries, but it was abandoned eventually when labor costs became prohibitive. Dutch immigrants introduced saffron to the Americas by the 1730s, and cultivation spread through Pennsylvania. Spanish colonies in the Caribbean bought large amounts of this crop until the War of 1812, when merchant vessels were attacked and destroyed. Saffron cultivation has continued to the present in Pennsylvania, mainly in Lancaster county.
Wholesale prices of saffron can vary up to tenfold depending upon various factors, commanding between $2,000 and $10,000 or more per kilogram. There is a long history of adulteration, mixing in extraneous substances or just saffron's tasteless and odorless yellow styles, which can add up to 30% to the weight; or adding viscid substances like honey or vegetable oil to increase weight. The powdered form is often cut commercially with other substances of similar natural or dyed color, such as marigold, turmeric, safflower, or gardenia in an attempt to keep the price down. These are known as fake, dyer's, or bastard saffron. Sometimes a higher-grade saffron would be mixed with a lower, cheaper one but labeled only as the higher type. Even today, high-grade Kashmiri saffron is often bought wholesale and mixed with cheaper Iranian imports, the final mix then marketed retail as pure Kashmiri product. In 16th century Germany, saffron was valued so highly that people convicted of adulterating it were sometimes burned at the stake or buried alive (along with their diluted product).
Good quality saffron threads should be strongly red in color, with yellow only at the lower part where they join the plant and slightly lighter orange-red tips. An average of 570 stigmas (from 190 flowers) can be required to produce a single gram of fresh saffron, and half a kilogram of the fresh powder yields 5-6 grams of dried spice. Saffron is available with different qualities depending upon where it is grown and the local growing conditions. As recently as the 1980s, Spain dominated the market, but Iran's production overtook it because of the cheaper cost. About 90% now comes from Iran, with 7% from Indian Kashmir, and only 1% from Spain. The remaining 2% is grown in Morocco, Switzerland, France, Italy, Greece, and Afghanistan. The varying climatic conditions and differences in growing, harvesting, and drying processes (to suit their local climate and soil) result in different essential oil contents and varying color and aroma intensities. Kashmiri saffron, for instance, is recognizable by its dark maroon-purple hue. Recent sanctions against Iran provided huge challenges for Iranian companies trying to export saffron to the U.S. and Europe. However, in mid-January 2016 the specific sanctions were lifted, allowing Iran to export it freely.
Natural red coloring is the most important indicator of saffron overall quality, with the two other indicators being dryness and aroma. Top quality saffron is dry and brittle, never soft and spongy. Lower quality saffron tends to have a higher moisture content, mainly because the yellow styles actually absorb moisture and can prevent proper stigma drying. Producers sometimes toast the saffron to counteract this. The quality of saffron from Iran, Spain, and Kashmir, is graded according to strength of aroma, from strongest (red stigma tips only), through medium strengths (red stigma, with a little yellow through a large amount of yellow style), to the weakest (yellow style only). True top-quality Spanish saffron, with the official designation 'Mancha,' is still considered by many to be the best in the world, but much of the 'Spanish' saffron sold is actually just a mixture of a small amount of a Spanish grade with a larger amount of an Iranian variety. Kashmir saffron usually is more woody, while the Iranian one is more floral. Countries producing less saffron do not have specialized words for different grades and may only produce one grade. Artisan producers in Europe and New Zealand have offset their higher labor charges for saffron harvesting by targeting quality, only offering extremely high-grade saffron. In addition to quality descriptions based on how it is picked and separated, saffron may be categorized by certified laboratory measurements of the chemicals crocin (color), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (aroma). However, although wholesale market prices can follow from these spectrophotometric categories, little of this laboratory information is included in product packaging. Regional saffron thread types are labeled at times according to government-imposed standards depending upon their particular distinct qualities, including thread length and shape, with trade names protected by law. Various 'boutique' crops, some organically grown, have been available from New Zealand, France, Switzerland, England, and the United States. Increasing numbers of growers, traders, and consumers reject lab testing numbers or government labels, and even the picking grades, preferring more holistic methods that involve periodic sampling of batches of threads for various traits, in a way similar to that practiced by experienced wine tasters.
Global saffron demand is projected to increase for at least the next 6 years, but overall production has fallen due to decreases in Asian and Middle Eastern rainfall and to the Coronavirus pandemic. While production has been government-restricted in the past to a limited geographical area in the Union territory of Indian, recent news reports have noted that the Pampore region of the Indian Kashmir Valley, often called the 'saffron bowl,' may expand commercially into the northeast area of the country. Plants from seeds transported to Sikkim and acclimatized there are now flowering, and trials are also underway in other areas. Thus it is possible that the total crop output could increase and possibly lower the world wholesale price.
The crocus plant name comes from the pre-Greek Assyrian word krokos, meaning yellow, and the name of the spice is from the Persian word za'fran for 'gold strung,' the subsequent Latin form safranum, and the derivative 12th-century Old French term safran.
Previously saffron was used mainly in the form of tinctures, obtained by heating the stigmas with ethanol. More recently, saffron essential oil or attar has been extracted by enfleurage, an ancient and slow cold process in which flowers or flower parts are laid gently on a thin layer of a fat such as shea butter, which is reapplied each day for a month or so until the fat is saturated with the scent. This fat, called a 'pomade,' is then washed repeatedly in alcohol and chilled and filtered several times to make the extract. However, the most concentrated and stable single-note essential oil, absolute, or concrete now can be obtained through steam/hydro-distillation or supercritical CO2 extraction.
Saffron is a somewhat ambiguous perfume note. The basic tone is a warm, woody, leathery-earthy, somewhat sweet, hay-like scent with violet and tobacco facets, and described as soft, rich and intimate. It is said to give notes of metallic or musky honey and hints of coumarin, hay, and grass. However, it also has a unique quality, a phenolic leathery and iodine ('medical') nuance that reminds some people of hospital smells. According to perfumer Dawn Spencer Hurwitz, "Saffron is a unique perfume material not the least for its multi-faceted nature. Since it's ultimately a flower, it has a wonderful way of adding a floral bouquet to the heart of a fragrance as well as acting as a catalyst for spices, citruses, and resins. Saffron also has a great affinity for the indolic and the animalic; it does wonderful things with animal notes in the base." Saffron blends particularly well with cedar and agarwood, especially in masculine fragrances and autumn mixtures, as well as with rose and other florals. Saffron is used in perfumery mainly as a nuancer and modifier.
Many modern Oriental and oud perfumes and attars contain notes of saffron. True saffron attar, now relatively rare, contains the full range of saffron volatiles co-distilled in a sandalwood medium. Saffron attar mixes well with frangipani, magnolia, flower of paradise, gardenia, and jasmine, and it complements other extracts such as orris, tobacco, opoponax, and osmanthus. The attar oil lasts for 6-8 hours on skin and may last more than 24 hours on clothing (but can stain them).
By volume, saffron's characteristic scent is due mainly to safranal (up to 70%), with contribution from a number of other aromatic ketones and aldehydes. (The most powerful individual chemical factor in the fragrance is a second molecule called 2-hydroxy-4,4,6-trimethyl-1,5-cyclohexadiene-1-one, which also is, interestingly, the unique pheromone of the bark beetle.) In the West, perfume formulators generally now use less expensive synthesized safranal in most of their products rather than the natural product. Safranal is a difficult note to use, its dry and harsh tone at higher dosages making it dominate a composition. Safraleine (Givaudan) is a similar synthetic molecule that evokes the lush, leathery-suede, bittersweet tones of saffron. It has spicy, strong, hot-leather and tobacco facets, with a floral rose aspect. Safraleine is used primarily in unisex fragrances. Safranal's concentration in perfumes is limited not only by cost; it also is restricted by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA) to 0.005% in products with skin contact, due its sensitizing and irritating properties. The Brazilian company Evolva has successfully developed synthetic yeast that can cost-effectively produce each of the chemical components of natural saffron through fermentation, and its products are expected to be launched soon. This could lower the commercial cost of using saffron but will have a devastating effect on the saffron farmers, especially in Iran and Kashmir. Says the company, "Producing the key saffron components by fermentation has three main benefits. Firstly, it will allow saffron to be available at a much lower price than currently, which will both expand existing markets and open new ones. Secondly it will eliminate the many complexities involved in the current supply chain. Finally, by making each of the key components separately, it will enable the production of customized forms that are for example particularly rich in aroma, taste or colour and that can be adapted to specific food formulations and regional preferences."
Egyptian physicians were using saffron as a cure-all by 1600 BC; and Egyptian dancers wore wax cones with saffron on their heads, which melted and perfumed their hair and faces while they danced. It was prized for its aphrodisiac properties, and Cleopatra was said to bathe in saffron before romantic meetings with men. However, it was also found that in large concentrations, it produced narcotic effects, which could be deadly. It was used in India as a facial skin mask to brighten the complexion and lighten dark spots. Greeks described Zeus as having a bed of saffron, indicating great wealth. They used it in perfumery, often as a single note, and it was traded throughout the Mediterranean by them and by the Phoenicians. During his Asian campaigns, Alexander the Great used Persian saffron in his army's infusions, rice, and baths as a curative for battle wounds, and he washed his hair with it. Romans spiced their foods with saffron and perfumed their baths and marriage beds with it, and they tossed it around on the floors of public places for special occasions. Ladies in the court of Henry VIII dyed their hair with saffron until the king, fearing it would reduce his supply of saffron for cooking, banned the practice.
Saffron is still used medicinally, including as a narcotic medication, in regions of Asia and the Mediterranean. In the modern West it has been used in the production of some medicines, and research suggests its value in many applications. Its derivative safranal has been shown to be an effective anticonvulsant. Research has suggested that the crocin in saffron can trigger cell death in a variety of cancers, including leukemia, ovarian carcinoma, and colon carcinoma. Studies have shown that it slows tumor growth and extends lifespan in rats with cancer, and one study indicated that it may be significantly less likely to cause birth defects when given to pregnant women than all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA), making it a viable alternative for treating some cancers in women of childbearing age. Other studies have shown that saffron has strong antioxidant properties that can neutralize free radicals which are by-products of aging, boosting immune system health. Two of its components, crocetin and crocin, seem to improve memory and learning skills in learning-impaired rats, suggesting that it may be useful in treating neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. Several studies confirm that saffron relieves mild depression, anxiety, and social phobia, especially in adolescents. It helps to reduce skin scarring, including acne scarring. Saffron has been shown to improve visual acuity, especially in early macular degeneration. And saffron contains compounds that are shown to stimulate the endocrine system, regulate insulin production, and reduced cholesterol levels, improving hormone balance and overall health. Finally, studies suggest that it mitigates pain during narcotic withdrawal, can improve injured peripheral nerve function, and can relieve arthritis and gout pain.
There are no known side effects or health hazards associated with the recommended oral dosages of saffron preparations in healthy, non-pregnant individuals, but at higher doses (above 12g) it can cause kidney damage, central nervous system paralysis, and even death. It should not be used in pregnant women because it can cause uterine contractions.
Saffron attar is commonly used in Ayurvedic medicine for a large number of ailments and in aromatherapy because of its warm and mood-soothing aroma. It is used still in Southwest Asia as an aphrodisiac and to improve sexual function, especially in those with depression.
Bittersweet picrocrocin is mainly responsible for the pungent, hay-like flavor of saffron, whose use in foods has been recorded since at least 2500 BC. Sumerians, Minoans, and Egyptians spiced foods with saffron, and they actively traded in it throughout the Mideast. Safranal also contributes in a minor way to the flavor. The distinctive water-soluble color of saffron is important for some foods in addition to its flavoring, especially in Mediterranean foods such as Spanish saffron rice and paella, Italian risotto, and the classic Provençal dish bouillabaisse, as well as in sweets and ice creams in the Middle East and India.
Alpha-crocin and carotenes are responsible for saffron's color, and their content is highest in fresh, undried threads. Saffron-based pigments have been found in 50,000-year-old cave art in Iran. The Egyptians dyed wrapping cloths of mummies with it, adding urine to preserve the golden color. Saffron has long been used by Buddhist monks, especially those from Tibet, for dying their robes, in addition to its use in their religious ceremonies. Old copies of the Koran and Tibetan scrolls indicate that scribes used saffron to make inks, and it was mixed with egg white by the Greeks and Chinese to make a dye for illuminating important manuscripts.
Masculine perfume products that contain significant saffron include the following:
Amouage Epic Man, Lyric Man
Amouroud Oud After Dark, Oud du Jour, Oud Tabac
Byredo Accord Oud, Black Saffron, Lil Fleur, Reine de Nuit
Calvin Klein Liquid Gold Euphoria
Cerruti l'Essence
Cumaru Raiz L’Occitane Au Brésil
Davidoff Silver Shadow, Leather Blend
Dzintars Strong Man
Ermenegildo Zegna Persian Saffron
Escada Magnetism
Fragrance du Bois Arabesque Attar, Cannabis Intense, Oud du Bois Attar, Petales de Cashmere, Rose du Bois Attar, Saharaa Oud
Francesca dell'Oro Very Tight
Francis Kurkdjian Oud, Baccarat Rouge 540
Giorgio Armani Summer Mania, Oud Royal, Mania
Henry Jacques White Saffron Or
House of Sillage Dignified
Hugo Boss Bottled Oud Saffron
Initio Oud for Greatness
Issey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey
Jacques Bogart One Man Show Ruby
Junaid Jamshed Oudh Qadim
Korres Saffron Spices
Marc-Antoine Barrois B683
Marly Godolphin, Habdan
Massimo Dutti Kashbah Sunset
Molton Brown Mesmerising Oudh Accord
Montale Aoud Musk
New York Amber Bond No. 9
Nishane Musiqa Oud, Nefs, Safran Colognise
Penhaligon's Halfeti, No. 33, Trad Routes Cairo, Vaara
Perfume Calligraphy Saffron Aramis
Prada Amber pour Homme
Rasasi La Yuqawam
Réveur pour Homme
Roja Aoud, Amber Aoud, Qatar, Sultanate of Oman
Swedoft Royal Satisfaction
Ted Lapidus Black Extreme
Versace Man, Dylan Blue
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Vince Camuto Eterno
Widian Arabia, Delma, Gold II Sahara, Liwa
Xerjoff Blue Hope, Casamorati Dolce Amalfi, 1888, Oud Stars Gao, Wardasina
Yanbal Jaque
Yves St. Laurent Cuir
Zara Red Temptation
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Violet
Violet (Viola odorata), also called Sweet Violet, grows in the Mediterranean regions and Asia Minor. It is well known for its sweet floral scent. Violet flowers were used for many purposes in ancient times, including scenting wine in Athens. Their fragrance was the favorite of Napoleon Bonaparte, who preferred it over his wife's favored musk. In the 19th and early 20th centuries especially, violet-based perfumes became very popular, and this trend has persisted to some degree to the present.
The violet flower has a sweet, powdery, slightly spicy, woody-floral scent produced primarily by ionones (ketones derived from degradation of carotenoids), and to a lesser degree by terpenes (aromatic hydrocarbons present in a variety of plants). Ionones were first separated from Parma violets by Tiemann and Krüger in 1893, leading eventually to production of synthetic violet notes identical in scent to and much less expensive than the natural oil. The ionones were first used in perfumery in 1936 in Violettes de Toulouse. Methyl ionones, also used in perfumery, were discovered by Tiemann that same year. Violet flower absolute is still used in a few products, but its cost limits its use.
Ionones and methyl ionones (along with their analogues and derivatives such as irones, damascones, Iso E Super, Koavone, Timberol, and Georgywood) are ubiquitous and are used now in almost every perfume. The scent palette of ionones ranges from aromas of fresh violet flower in blossom to mild woody and sweet floral nuances. Methyl ionones possess a stronger woody character, similar to iris rhizomes. Irone alpha (6-methyl alpha ionone), somewhat woody and with a hint of raspberry, is the most popular of the ionones in pure form. Iraldeine, a base, is also used along with the ionones to recreate the violet flower scent. There are many different ionone and methyl ionone isomers that provide varying odor profiles. In addition to providing fragrance, these chemicals act as "blenders" in perfumes, adding harmony to other components, often functioning as a bridge between the middle and base notes in a composition.
The scent of violet leaves is different from and stronger than the scent of the flowers. The leaves display an intensively green aroma resembling that of freshly mown grass, combined with a hint of cucumber adn/or melon. In the South of France, two kinds of violets, Parma and Victoria, are cultivated now mainly for their leaves. The fresh scent of violet leaves is an integral component in many fragrance mixes, ranging from fresh floral and metallic to oriental spicy, earthy, and fougère green. Octin esters and methyl heptin carbonate are also used to provide the floral-green violet leaf note, especially in the fougère family and many modern masculine fragrances.
Unfortunately, the distinction between the violet flower scent and the leaf scent is not always clear in fragrance descriptions, and one sometimes must try a product to determine its violet character.
An interesting note about ionones is that the molecules quickly desensitize nasal odor receptors, so the violet smell of a perfume product appears to fade, an effect identical to that encountered with the smell of fresh violet flowers.
Examples of fragrance products with violet notes for men or for both sexes include:
Ultraviolet (Paco Rabanne)
April Violets (Yardley)
Violetta, Iris (Santa Maria Novella)
Change Man, Unique Man (Otto Kern)
Bois de Violette (Serge Lutens)
Violetta (Penhaligon's)
The Man Cobalt (Milton Lloyd)
Violette (Norma Kamali)
Vers la Violette (DSH Perfumes)
Red Man (Bi-es)
Uomo (Roberto Cavalli)
Violette (Jardin de France)
Hit Violet (Dzintars)
Violette du Czar (Oriza L. Legrand)
Ajaccio Violets (G.F. Trumper)
Celestial Violet Man (Nadia Z)
Violet Leaf (Nomaterra Brooklyn)
Violette (Molinard)
No. 7 Violette (Prada)
Violette a Sidney (Tonatto Profumi)
Royal Violets (Agustin Reyes)
Green Tea and Violet (Alvarez Gomez)
Violette Fumee (Mona de Orio)
Wisteria & Violet (Jo Malone)
Oud Violet Intense (Fragrance du Bois)
Violett Tabak (Ava Luxe)
Violet Musc (Ajmal)
Violet (Viola odorata), also called Sweet Violet, grows in the Mediterranean regions and Asia Minor. It is well known for its sweet floral scent. Violet flowers were used for many purposes in ancient times, including scenting wine in Athens. Their fragrance was the favorite of Napoleon Bonaparte, who preferred it over his wife's favored musk. In the 19th and early 20th centuries especially, violet-based perfumes became very popular, and this trend has persisted to some degree to the present.
The violet flower has a sweet, powdery, slightly spicy, woody-floral scent produced primarily by ionones (ketones derived from degradation of carotenoids), and to a lesser degree by terpenes (aromatic hydrocarbons present in a variety of plants). Ionones were first separated from Parma violets by Tiemann and Krüger in 1893, leading eventually to production of synthetic violet notes identical in scent to and much less expensive than the natural oil. The ionones were first used in perfumery in 1936 in Violettes de Toulouse. Methyl ionones, also used in perfumery, were discovered by Tiemann that same year. Violet flower absolute is still used in a few products, but its cost limits its use.
Ionones and methyl ionones (along with their analogues and derivatives such as irones, damascones, Iso E Super, Koavone, Timberol, and Georgywood) are ubiquitous and are used now in almost every perfume. The scent palette of ionones ranges from aromas of fresh violet flower in blossom to mild woody and sweet floral nuances. Methyl ionones possess a stronger woody character, similar to iris rhizomes. Irone alpha (6-methyl alpha ionone), somewhat woody and with a hint of raspberry, is the most popular of the ionones in pure form. Iraldeine, a base, is also used along with the ionones to recreate the violet flower scent. There are many different ionone and methyl ionone isomers that provide varying odor profiles. In addition to providing fragrance, these chemicals act as "blenders" in perfumes, adding harmony to other components, often functioning as a bridge between the middle and base notes in a composition.
The scent of violet leaves is different from and stronger than the scent of the flowers. The leaves display an intensively green aroma resembling that of freshly mown grass, combined with a hint of cucumber adn/or melon. In the South of France, two kinds of violets, Parma and Victoria, are cultivated now mainly for their leaves. The fresh scent of violet leaves is an integral component in many fragrance mixes, ranging from fresh floral and metallic to oriental spicy, earthy, and fougère green. Octin esters and methyl heptin carbonate are also used to provide the floral-green violet leaf note, especially in the fougère family and many modern masculine fragrances.
Unfortunately, the distinction between the violet flower scent and the leaf scent is not always clear in fragrance descriptions, and one sometimes must try a product to determine its violet character.
An interesting note about ionones is that the molecules quickly desensitize nasal odor receptors, so the violet smell of a perfume product appears to fade, an effect identical to that encountered with the smell of fresh violet flowers.
Examples of fragrance products with violet notes for men or for both sexes include:
Ultraviolet (Paco Rabanne)
April Violets (Yardley)
Violetta, Iris (Santa Maria Novella)
Change Man, Unique Man (Otto Kern)
Bois de Violette (Serge Lutens)
Violetta (Penhaligon's)
The Man Cobalt (Milton Lloyd)
Violette (Norma Kamali)
Vers la Violette (DSH Perfumes)
Red Man (Bi-es)
Uomo (Roberto Cavalli)
Violette (Jardin de France)
Hit Violet (Dzintars)
Violette du Czar (Oriza L. Legrand)
Ajaccio Violets (G.F. Trumper)
Celestial Violet Man (Nadia Z)
Violet Leaf (Nomaterra Brooklyn)
Violette (Molinard)
No. 7 Violette (Prada)
Violette a Sidney (Tonatto Profumi)
Royal Violets (Agustin Reyes)
Green Tea and Violet (Alvarez Gomez)
Violette Fumee (Mona de Orio)
Wisteria & Violet (Jo Malone)
Oud Violet Intense (Fragrance du Bois)
Violett Tabak (Ava Luxe)
Violet Musc (Ajmal)
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Nag Champa, Champaca, and Magnolia
Nag Champa
Nag champa is the name of a perfume oil originally made in Hindu and Buddhist monasteries of India and Nepal and used to perfume incense for religious ceremonies. It traditionally has been made with a sandalwood base, to which were added a variety of flower oils, most often oil from the flower of the Magnolia champaca tree (sometimes called champak in English) or the frangipani flower. When frangipani was used, the fragrance usually has been referred to simply as champa.
Nag champa perfume ingredients vary with the manufacturer. Other additional ingredients beyond the sandalwood base and champaca flower depend upon the design and purpose of the finished product: perfume-dipped incenses and soaps generally use various essential oils or scents, while masala incenses use finely ground fragrance sources, pressed and rolled onto fine bamboo sticks, as well as some essential oils.
The best-known nag champa incense is produced by followers of the guru Satya Sai Baba in Bangalore. Its precise ingredients are secret, but the formula is said to contain a base of sandalwood and a distinctively gray-brown resin known as halmaddi, derived from the Ailanthus malabarica tree and said to smell very much like the champaca flower. Formulas have changed over time as certain ingredients, including both the champaca flower and halmaddi, have gotten more expensive. (Booming development in India has made land increasingly precious, and farmers are asking higher and higher prices for their flower products to justify not selling their land.) Incense blends now often contain vanilla, cardamom, and orange flower, especially for low-priced sticks. Mesua ferrea (nagkeshar) oil is sometimes used as an alternative in scents called nag champa.
Nag champa oil actually is used relatively infrequently in perfumery because of its high cost. It has a sweet, slightly woody smell that is described as warm, moist, and heady but calming. It is said to be reminiscent of jasmine or magnolia flowers, a forest, or tea. It usually is included in the Resins and Balsams fragrance group or the White Floral group. The scent is considered neither masculine nor feminine in character, so it mainly appears in those called unisex. It mixes nicely with other warm and spicy aromas, and it is used commonly in floral compositions, primarily those with rose, jasmine, and ylang ylang. It also blends very well with sandalwood, cedarwood, patchouli, lovage root, Siam wood, neroli, and bergamot.
Popular for centuries in Indian and Asian incense, nag champa was traded only rarely in Europe until fairly recently. The scent eventually made its way to Europe and the U.S., especially in the 1960s and 1970s, when large numbers of Western travelers and 'spiritual seekers' began to explore India and Nepal. Not long after that, Bob Dylan began to burn nag champa onstage at his concerts, as did the Grateful Dead, and it appeared in 'head shops' throughout the U.S.
Champaca
A number of flowering evergreen tree species are known as champa or champak: primarily Magnolia champaca (also known as Joy Perfume Tree, yellow jade orchid, or Himalayan champaca), Plumeria rubra or Plumeria acutifolia (both called frangipani), and Mesua ferrea (Ceylon ironwood). All are native to tropical and subtropical areas of India, Indochina, Malaysia, and southern China. Of these, M. champaca is most often used to prepare scent for nag champa perfume products. It is a popular and recognizable fragrance that is also included in many soaps, fragrance oils, candles, and personal toiletries.
For perfumery, the champaca essential oil, absolute, CO2 distillate, or concrete is obtained from the flower petals. Red flowers are considered the most fragrant, followed by yellow and white. The flowers are said to be harvested only at night because the scent is thought to be at its highest quality then. According to botanists, the tree is so fragrant when blooming that its scent can be detected from one hundred meters away.
The essential oil has a penetrating, dark, exotic, rich, seductive aroma that is reminiscent of tea and spices, as well as an intense floral tone that some - but not all - compare to orange blossom. Its drydown also has hints of hay and tobacco. Champaca is also related to star anise, and champaca essential oil's scent shares some of its spicy characteristics. The scents of the absolutes are said to be warmer and richer and to vary from being fruity and reminiscent of white magnolia to spicy, full-bodied, and wine-like.
Champaca CO2 distillate is similar to the absolute but less complex, with a sultry but flatter and thinner fragrance, and it sometimes is used in combination with the concrete for more fullness and body. The CO2 extract is simpler because it does not contain the artifactual or decomposition hydrocarbons that are found in the essential oil, it is free of solvent residue and has less wax than a regular distillate. Some, however, say that it actually has a fragrance profile closer to that of the fresh unpicked flowers. The concrete is said to be a favorite of some perfumers because of its especially rich, complex, tea-like undertones, sweet body note, and minty-herbal-spicy overtones.
The perfumer Stephen Arctander describes champaca generally as being similar to waxy, smoky, tea rose-like guaiac wood, which he says is sometimes used to adulterate champaca and decrease the cost to retailers.
Jean Patou's famous perfume Joy, the second-best selling perfume in the world and advertised at one time as the world's costliest perfume, contains essential oil of red champaca flowers (which is why it is sometimes is called the Joy Perfume Tree). Champaca is very expensive and is used infrequently and in very small amounts in most perfume product compositions. However, use of champaca absolute as a single or predominant note has once again increased recently in products from a small number of niche perfumers.
Champaca's primary scent constituents are linalool (about 60%), benzyl acetate, and phenylethyl alcohol (a light rose alcohol). Other chemical constituents of the fragrance are methyl benzoate, phenylacetonitrile, indole (animalic undertones), and methyl anthranilate (heady like orange blossom), along with various sesquiterpenes, ionones, and esters.
The M. champaca flower has long been prized in India for its bright yellow-orange, red, or white color and its powerful yet delicate fragrance, and the tree was often planted near ashrams (religious communities). It was considered sacred to the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu, and the flowers and incense have been used primarily for religious worship there. Sacred groves of wild champaca trees, providing refuges for threatened plants and animals, are still maintained by tribal communities in southwestern India. In Theraveda Buddhism, champaca is said to be the tree under which the Lord Buddha achieved Bodhi (enlightenment).
Indian women traditionally tucked champa buds behind their ears, where the body heat warmed and opened the petals and allowed the scent to escape. The flowers sometimes were floated in a bowl of water to scent a room and have been used to decorate bridal beds and small garlands. The tree also has been used as a source of timber used in woodworking.
In Ayurvedic medicine, champaca is considered to be specific treatment for general debility, malarial fever, circulation problems, airway diseases, digestive diseases, and skin disorders. Champaca has been used in several cultures as an aphrodisiac, antidepressant, and relaxant, and it is said to induce euphoria at higher doses. It is reputed to strengthen the mind but can also impede concentration. In massage therapy it is said to moisturize and rejuvenate aging skin and to add strength to muscles and joints. Linalool in champaca oil has been shown in scientific studies to modulate stress responses, to have anti-anxiety effects, to improve the quality of sleep, and to decrease aggressive behavior.
Magnolia
Fossils of plants belonging to the Magnoliaceae family have been dated to 95 million years ago. Magnolia, named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol, is a large and ancient genus in this family. Appearing on earth before the presence of bees, magnolia flowers are thought to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles. The world natural distribution of magnolias has a main center in east and southeast Asia and a secondary center in southeastern North America, Central America, and the West Indies. The flower has been cultivated in China and Japan for centuries, and the practice spread from there. The first cultivated magnolia in Europe was the Virginiana species, sent by a missionary in the American colonies in 1687 to an English bishop and gardener.
Magnolia flowers and leaves are often but not always fragrant. The flower scent is creamy and sweet with a light citrus nuance, while the leaf scent is similar but greener and less sweet. Three molecules account for most of the characteristic magnolia scent balance: (Z)-jasmone (27%), verbenone (18%), and isopinocamphone (9%), with the latter two providing a green and camphoraceous-medicinal facet.
The oil from flowers and leaves of Magnolia grandiflora (white magnolia) or Michelia alba (a hybrid of Magnolia champaca and Magnolia montana) is most often used in perfumery with the magnolia name. The scent is both fresh and lush, sweet, rose-like and violet-like, and has peach and citrus undertones. It is intense and said to be 'crowded' with notes, giving it a somewhat heavy, dark style that was especially popular in the 1980s. Says expert William Poucher, "The perfume of the majority of species of Magnolia is exotic, and the fragrance resembles that of a ylang ylang-lily complex, with a shading of clove and a top note of lemon." Most magnolia oil now is produced in China, either as an essential oil or a CO2 distillate. The CO2 extract form has an intensely fruity, peach-like aroma with slight green/clean notes and hints of fresh gardenia.
Nag champa fragrances (unisex except as noted):
Alkemia Psychedelique
Arcana Wildcraft Shiva's Trident
Ava Luxe Nag Champa
Carlos Santana (masculine)
Caron Narcisse Noir
Commes de Garcons Guerilla 1
Czech & Speake No. 88 (masculine)
Goth Rosary Nocturnal
Loree Rodkin Gothic II
Yves St. Laurent Kouros (masculine)
Champaca fragrances:
4711 Sir Champaca (masculine)
Areej Le Dore Koh-i-Noor, Walimah
Bortnikoff Coup de Foudre
Ormonde Jayne Champaca
Prissana Mandarava
Thorn & Bloom Limestone
Tom Ford Champaca Absolute
Magnolia fragrances:
Andree Putman Magnolys
Areej Le Dore Walimah
Attar Selective III
Avon Life Colour (masculine)
Bahoma London Jolie
Boellis Condotti
By Kilian Asian Tales Water Calligraphy
Collistar la Rosa
Cuarzo the Circle Just Gold
Etry D
Evocative Fleur de Magnolia
Floraiku Cricket Song
Frederic Malle Eau de Magnolia
Fueguia 1833 Agua Magnoliana, Un Deux Trois, Malena
Hermes Un Jardin sur la Lagune, Un Jardin sur le Toit
Initio High Frequency
Jo Malone Amber & Patchouli, London Star Magnolia
Le Chereche Midi
Mirus Ceremony
Moresque Midnight London
Nasomatto Pardon
Nomaterra Savannah Magnolia
Penhaligon's Vaara
Pineider Classica adi Magnolia (masculine)
Ralph Lauren Song of America Magnolia
Sentifique Party
Sonia Kashuk Pink Innocencia
Valmont Jazzy Twist
Xerjoff Allende
Yakura Belen
Nag Champa
Nag champa is the name of a perfume oil originally made in Hindu and Buddhist monasteries of India and Nepal and used to perfume incense for religious ceremonies. It traditionally has been made with a sandalwood base, to which were added a variety of flower oils, most often oil from the flower of the Magnolia champaca tree (sometimes called champak in English) or the frangipani flower. When frangipani was used, the fragrance usually has been referred to simply as champa.
Nag champa perfume ingredients vary with the manufacturer. Other additional ingredients beyond the sandalwood base and champaca flower depend upon the design and purpose of the finished product: perfume-dipped incenses and soaps generally use various essential oils or scents, while masala incenses use finely ground fragrance sources, pressed and rolled onto fine bamboo sticks, as well as some essential oils.
The best-known nag champa incense is produced by followers of the guru Satya Sai Baba in Bangalore. Its precise ingredients are secret, but the formula is said to contain a base of sandalwood and a distinctively gray-brown resin known as halmaddi, derived from the Ailanthus malabarica tree and said to smell very much like the champaca flower. Formulas have changed over time as certain ingredients, including both the champaca flower and halmaddi, have gotten more expensive. (Booming development in India has made land increasingly precious, and farmers are asking higher and higher prices for their flower products to justify not selling their land.) Incense blends now often contain vanilla, cardamom, and orange flower, especially for low-priced sticks. Mesua ferrea (nagkeshar) oil is sometimes used as an alternative in scents called nag champa.
Nag champa oil actually is used relatively infrequently in perfumery because of its high cost. It has a sweet, slightly woody smell that is described as warm, moist, and heady but calming. It is said to be reminiscent of jasmine or magnolia flowers, a forest, or tea. It usually is included in the Resins and Balsams fragrance group or the White Floral group. The scent is considered neither masculine nor feminine in character, so it mainly appears in those called unisex. It mixes nicely with other warm and spicy aromas, and it is used commonly in floral compositions, primarily those with rose, jasmine, and ylang ylang. It also blends very well with sandalwood, cedarwood, patchouli, lovage root, Siam wood, neroli, and bergamot.
Popular for centuries in Indian and Asian incense, nag champa was traded only rarely in Europe until fairly recently. The scent eventually made its way to Europe and the U.S., especially in the 1960s and 1970s, when large numbers of Western travelers and 'spiritual seekers' began to explore India and Nepal. Not long after that, Bob Dylan began to burn nag champa onstage at his concerts, as did the Grateful Dead, and it appeared in 'head shops' throughout the U.S.
Champaca
A number of flowering evergreen tree species are known as champa or champak: primarily Magnolia champaca (also known as Joy Perfume Tree, yellow jade orchid, or Himalayan champaca), Plumeria rubra or Plumeria acutifolia (both called frangipani), and Mesua ferrea (Ceylon ironwood). All are native to tropical and subtropical areas of India, Indochina, Malaysia, and southern China. Of these, M. champaca is most often used to prepare scent for nag champa perfume products. It is a popular and recognizable fragrance that is also included in many soaps, fragrance oils, candles, and personal toiletries.
For perfumery, the champaca essential oil, absolute, CO2 distillate, or concrete is obtained from the flower petals. Red flowers are considered the most fragrant, followed by yellow and white. The flowers are said to be harvested only at night because the scent is thought to be at its highest quality then. According to botanists, the tree is so fragrant when blooming that its scent can be detected from one hundred meters away.
The essential oil has a penetrating, dark, exotic, rich, seductive aroma that is reminiscent of tea and spices, as well as an intense floral tone that some - but not all - compare to orange blossom. Its drydown also has hints of hay and tobacco. Champaca is also related to star anise, and champaca essential oil's scent shares some of its spicy characteristics. The scents of the absolutes are said to be warmer and richer and to vary from being fruity and reminiscent of white magnolia to spicy, full-bodied, and wine-like.
Champaca CO2 distillate is similar to the absolute but less complex, with a sultry but flatter and thinner fragrance, and it sometimes is used in combination with the concrete for more fullness and body. The CO2 extract is simpler because it does not contain the artifactual or decomposition hydrocarbons that are found in the essential oil, it is free of solvent residue and has less wax than a regular distillate. Some, however, say that it actually has a fragrance profile closer to that of the fresh unpicked flowers. The concrete is said to be a favorite of some perfumers because of its especially rich, complex, tea-like undertones, sweet body note, and minty-herbal-spicy overtones.
The perfumer Stephen Arctander describes champaca generally as being similar to waxy, smoky, tea rose-like guaiac wood, which he says is sometimes used to adulterate champaca and decrease the cost to retailers.
Jean Patou's famous perfume Joy, the second-best selling perfume in the world and advertised at one time as the world's costliest perfume, contains essential oil of red champaca flowers (which is why it is sometimes is called the Joy Perfume Tree). Champaca is very expensive and is used infrequently and in very small amounts in most perfume product compositions. However, use of champaca absolute as a single or predominant note has once again increased recently in products from a small number of niche perfumers.
Champaca's primary scent constituents are linalool (about 60%), benzyl acetate, and phenylethyl alcohol (a light rose alcohol). Other chemical constituents of the fragrance are methyl benzoate, phenylacetonitrile, indole (animalic undertones), and methyl anthranilate (heady like orange blossom), along with various sesquiterpenes, ionones, and esters.
The M. champaca flower has long been prized in India for its bright yellow-orange, red, or white color and its powerful yet delicate fragrance, and the tree was often planted near ashrams (religious communities). It was considered sacred to the Hindu gods Shiva and Vishnu, and the flowers and incense have been used primarily for religious worship there. Sacred groves of wild champaca trees, providing refuges for threatened plants and animals, are still maintained by tribal communities in southwestern India. In Theraveda Buddhism, champaca is said to be the tree under which the Lord Buddha achieved Bodhi (enlightenment).
Indian women traditionally tucked champa buds behind their ears, where the body heat warmed and opened the petals and allowed the scent to escape. The flowers sometimes were floated in a bowl of water to scent a room and have been used to decorate bridal beds and small garlands. The tree also has been used as a source of timber used in woodworking.
In Ayurvedic medicine, champaca is considered to be specific treatment for general debility, malarial fever, circulation problems, airway diseases, digestive diseases, and skin disorders. Champaca has been used in several cultures as an aphrodisiac, antidepressant, and relaxant, and it is said to induce euphoria at higher doses. It is reputed to strengthen the mind but can also impede concentration. In massage therapy it is said to moisturize and rejuvenate aging skin and to add strength to muscles and joints. Linalool in champaca oil has been shown in scientific studies to modulate stress responses, to have anti-anxiety effects, to improve the quality of sleep, and to decrease aggressive behavior.
Magnolia
Fossils of plants belonging to the Magnoliaceae family have been dated to 95 million years ago. Magnolia, named after the French botanist Pierre Magnol, is a large and ancient genus in this family. Appearing on earth before the presence of bees, magnolia flowers are thought to have evolved to encourage pollination by beetles. The world natural distribution of magnolias has a main center in east and southeast Asia and a secondary center in southeastern North America, Central America, and the West Indies. The flower has been cultivated in China and Japan for centuries, and the practice spread from there. The first cultivated magnolia in Europe was the Virginiana species, sent by a missionary in the American colonies in 1687 to an English bishop and gardener.
Magnolia flowers and leaves are often but not always fragrant. The flower scent is creamy and sweet with a light citrus nuance, while the leaf scent is similar but greener and less sweet. Three molecules account for most of the characteristic magnolia scent balance: (Z)-jasmone (27%), verbenone (18%), and isopinocamphone (9%), with the latter two providing a green and camphoraceous-medicinal facet.
The oil from flowers and leaves of Magnolia grandiflora (white magnolia) or Michelia alba (a hybrid of Magnolia champaca and Magnolia montana) is most often used in perfumery with the magnolia name. The scent is both fresh and lush, sweet, rose-like and violet-like, and has peach and citrus undertones. It is intense and said to be 'crowded' with notes, giving it a somewhat heavy, dark style that was especially popular in the 1980s. Says expert William Poucher, "The perfume of the majority of species of Magnolia is exotic, and the fragrance resembles that of a ylang ylang-lily complex, with a shading of clove and a top note of lemon." Most magnolia oil now is produced in China, either as an essential oil or a CO2 distillate. The CO2 extract form has an intensely fruity, peach-like aroma with slight green/clean notes and hints of fresh gardenia.
Nag champa fragrances (unisex except as noted):
Alkemia Psychedelique
Arcana Wildcraft Shiva's Trident
Ava Luxe Nag Champa
Carlos Santana (masculine)
Caron Narcisse Noir
Commes de Garcons Guerilla 1
Czech & Speake No. 88 (masculine)
Goth Rosary Nocturnal
Loree Rodkin Gothic II
Yves St. Laurent Kouros (masculine)
Champaca fragrances:
4711 Sir Champaca (masculine)
Areej Le Dore Koh-i-Noor, Walimah
Bortnikoff Coup de Foudre
Ormonde Jayne Champaca
Prissana Mandarava
Thorn & Bloom Limestone
Tom Ford Champaca Absolute
Magnolia fragrances:
Andree Putman Magnolys
Areej Le Dore Walimah
Attar Selective III
Avon Life Colour (masculine)
Bahoma London Jolie
Boellis Condotti
By Kilian Asian Tales Water Calligraphy
Collistar la Rosa
Cuarzo the Circle Just Gold
Etry D
Evocative Fleur de Magnolia
Floraiku Cricket Song
Frederic Malle Eau de Magnolia
Fueguia 1833 Agua Magnoliana, Un Deux Trois, Malena
Hermes Un Jardin sur la Lagune, Un Jardin sur le Toit
Initio High Frequency
Jo Malone Amber & Patchouli, London Star Magnolia
Le Chereche Midi
Mirus Ceremony
Moresque Midnight London
Nasomatto Pardon
Nomaterra Savannah Magnolia
Penhaligon's Vaara
Pineider Classica adi Magnolia (masculine)
Ralph Lauren Song of America Magnolia
Sentifique Party
Sonia Kashuk Pink Innocencia
Valmont Jazzy Twist
Xerjoff Allende
Yakura Belen
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Cashmeran
Cashmeran (musk indanone or indomuscone) is a trademarked synthetic scent that was first developed by International Fragrance Foundation (IFF) in 1968, when a scientist there was researching impurities in a gas chromatogram. Since then its production process has been improved greatly, making it cost-effective. Among the first perfumes to use it significantly were Paco Rabanne Sport (1986) and Cacharel LouLou (1987).
Cashsmeran sometimes is included in the group of polycyclic musks, although there is argument about this, and many place it between the wood and musk families. The IFF Compendium classifies it as an amber and says that it is "useful in creating spicy carnation florals, amber musk notes, Orientals, and woody accords." The scent has been compared to the abstract odor of city concrete being hit by rain and to the smell of 'sun-kissed skin.' At concentrations of less than 1% it has a salty, slightly animalic effect.
Cashmeran's name comes from the comparison of its smell to the soft, smooth tactile impression of cashmere wool. Also known in perfume language as cashmere wood, cashmere musk, or blond wood, Cashmeran is complex and multifaceted. It has a warm, rich, clean, sharp, spicy component, a sweet balmy vanillic aspect (somewhat reminiscent of old paper), and distinct woody-resinous-coniferous and red fruity notes. Light powdery and velvety nuances, as well as leathery and earthy notes, are present. The scent has been described as radiant and vibrant but "whispering rather than screaming."
Cashmeran's profile is quite pliable and versatile, and it can be used in practically all perfume genres, and it is nearly ubiquitous in ouds. As the amount of natural oud in compositions decreases and synthetic oud accords become more prominent, Cashmeran often makes up a significant part of the 'oud.' It is frequently used in small amounts in chypres, florals, dark woods, and Oriental accords, in which it adds depth and aids in expansion and diffusion. As a base note, it helps heavier wood molecules gel properly with more heady musk notes. It enriches otherwise linear compositions and has the effect of making them more complex. It blends especially well with jasmine, rose, neroli, tobacco, frankincense, patchouli, sage, saffron, vetiver, tonka bean, and woods, in addition to other modern synthetics such as ambroxan.
In the words of the authors of Scent and Chemistry, "Cashmeran is a unique synthetic odorant which combines floral-fruity musky with conifer-type woody aspects in perfect balance..." Master perfumer Arcadi Boix Camps, while acknowledging the difficulty of placing it in any specific category, classified Cashmeran as floral in 1985, saying that it is "a strong, floral, musky product of great diffusion and personality that combines very well with green grass... and such blends as amber, floral, coriaceous, and woody... It enhances, producing radiance."
Cashmeran is moderately projecting, quite diffusive, and long-lasting. It in addition to its own scent qualities, it has excellent rounding and smoothing properties for other ingredients. It most often is included in masculine blends. Its concentration in perfume rarely exceeds 2% because it is a slight skin and eye irritant and a mild skin sensitizer, although it is not listed as an allergen by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA). It is relatively inexpensive, and it has a shelf life of up to 36 months or longer.
In its pure form, Cashmeran is a white-yellow crystalline mass that melts at 27C, so for wholesale it is usually offered at 50% concentration. It is nearly insoluble in water and very hydrophobic, and it does not rinse out of fabrics easily, which makes it ideal for household products (detergents, fabric softeners, shampoos, etc.) that are meant to leave a lingering trace of scent.
Other synthetics whose structure is close to that of Cashmeran include the following:
- Nebulone (IFF), an effort to make Cashmeran 'longer and heavier,' shifting it more to the musk group
- Trisamber (IFF), aka woody furan, has a dry, woody, amber smell and increased diffusivity and strength
- Amber Xtreme, a close relative of trisamber
- Cashmeran Velvet (IFF), a combination of Cashmeran and Iso E Super that contains Amber Xtreme in its base
- Quinazoline derivatives, more intense, ambery, woody, and powdery, and sweeter
Masculine fragrances with significant Cashmeran present include:
Adidas Born Original, UEFA Champions League
Aigner No. 1 Oud
Aramis Special Blend
Asgharali al Qasayad
Atelier d'Artistes by Alexandre.J Signature
Azzaro Chrome Extreme, Hot Pepper
Botica 214 Dark Mint
Burberry Brit Rhythm for Him
Byredo Black Saffron
Calvin Klein Obsessed Intense, Eternity
Carolina Herrera Beasts, Insignia
Coach Platinum
Colcci Neon
Comme des Garcons Wonderwood
David Beckham Classic Blue
Davidoff Cool Water Night Dive
Dolce & Gabbana The One (var.)
Harvey Prince Big
Henderson Sport Aviator
Houbigant Bois Mystique
Hugo Boss Bottled United, Cashmere Patchouli, Just Different
Issey Miyake L'Eau Majeure, Shades of Kolam
Jequiti Rodrigo Faro Unico
Joop! Wow! (var.)
Karl Lagerfeld Ocean View
Lacoste L.12.12. Noir, Match Point
Lionel Richie Hello
Mansfield Sortilege
MetaScent Shrine
M. Micallef Azure Crystal
Moschino Toy Boy
Natura Essencial Mirra, Homem Essence, Homem Verum, Kaiak Expedicao, Sintonia Impacto
O Boticario Egeo Blue, Horizonte, Malbec (var.)
Otto Kern Cool Contrast
Pace
Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Black XS Potion
Pal Zileri Essenza di Aoud
Panama 1924 Fefe
Pierre Guillaume Monsieur
Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Cashmere
Roberto Cavalli Deep Desire
Roja Scandal
Yardley Bond St
Yeslam pour Homme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Libre. La Nuit de l'Homme Eau Eletrique
Zara 6.0, C4SHMER4N, Mexico Soul, Poplin Shirt
Cashmeran (musk indanone or indomuscone) is a trademarked synthetic scent that was first developed by International Fragrance Foundation (IFF) in 1968, when a scientist there was researching impurities in a gas chromatogram. Since then its production process has been improved greatly, making it cost-effective. Among the first perfumes to use it significantly were Paco Rabanne Sport (1986) and Cacharel LouLou (1987).
Cashsmeran sometimes is included in the group of polycyclic musks, although there is argument about this, and many place it between the wood and musk families. The IFF Compendium classifies it as an amber and says that it is "useful in creating spicy carnation florals, amber musk notes, Orientals, and woody accords." The scent has been compared to the abstract odor of city concrete being hit by rain and to the smell of 'sun-kissed skin.' At concentrations of less than 1% it has a salty, slightly animalic effect.
Cashmeran's name comes from the comparison of its smell to the soft, smooth tactile impression of cashmere wool. Also known in perfume language as cashmere wood, cashmere musk, or blond wood, Cashmeran is complex and multifaceted. It has a warm, rich, clean, sharp, spicy component, a sweet balmy vanillic aspect (somewhat reminiscent of old paper), and distinct woody-resinous-coniferous and red fruity notes. Light powdery and velvety nuances, as well as leathery and earthy notes, are present. The scent has been described as radiant and vibrant but "whispering rather than screaming."
Cashmeran's profile is quite pliable and versatile, and it can be used in practically all perfume genres, and it is nearly ubiquitous in ouds. As the amount of natural oud in compositions decreases and synthetic oud accords become more prominent, Cashmeran often makes up a significant part of the 'oud.' It is frequently used in small amounts in chypres, florals, dark woods, and Oriental accords, in which it adds depth and aids in expansion and diffusion. As a base note, it helps heavier wood molecules gel properly with more heady musk notes. It enriches otherwise linear compositions and has the effect of making them more complex. It blends especially well with jasmine, rose, neroli, tobacco, frankincense, patchouli, sage, saffron, vetiver, tonka bean, and woods, in addition to other modern synthetics such as ambroxan.
In the words of the authors of Scent and Chemistry, "Cashmeran is a unique synthetic odorant which combines floral-fruity musky with conifer-type woody aspects in perfect balance..." Master perfumer Arcadi Boix Camps, while acknowledging the difficulty of placing it in any specific category, classified Cashmeran as floral in 1985, saying that it is "a strong, floral, musky product of great diffusion and personality that combines very well with green grass... and such blends as amber, floral, coriaceous, and woody... It enhances, producing radiance."
Cashmeran is moderately projecting, quite diffusive, and long-lasting. It in addition to its own scent qualities, it has excellent rounding and smoothing properties for other ingredients. It most often is included in masculine blends. Its concentration in perfume rarely exceeds 2% because it is a slight skin and eye irritant and a mild skin sensitizer, although it is not listed as an allergen by the International Fragrance Association (IFRA). It is relatively inexpensive, and it has a shelf life of up to 36 months or longer.
In its pure form, Cashmeran is a white-yellow crystalline mass that melts at 27C, so for wholesale it is usually offered at 50% concentration. It is nearly insoluble in water and very hydrophobic, and it does not rinse out of fabrics easily, which makes it ideal for household products (detergents, fabric softeners, shampoos, etc.) that are meant to leave a lingering trace of scent.
Other synthetics whose structure is close to that of Cashmeran include the following:
- Nebulone (IFF), an effort to make Cashmeran 'longer and heavier,' shifting it more to the musk group
- Trisamber (IFF), aka woody furan, has a dry, woody, amber smell and increased diffusivity and strength
- Amber Xtreme, a close relative of trisamber
- Cashmeran Velvet (IFF), a combination of Cashmeran and Iso E Super that contains Amber Xtreme in its base
- Quinazoline derivatives, more intense, ambery, woody, and powdery, and sweeter
Masculine fragrances with significant Cashmeran present include:
Adidas Born Original, UEFA Champions League
Aigner No. 1 Oud
Aramis Special Blend
Asgharali al Qasayad
Atelier d'Artistes by Alexandre.J Signature
Azzaro Chrome Extreme, Hot Pepper
Botica 214 Dark Mint
Burberry Brit Rhythm for Him
Byredo Black Saffron
Calvin Klein Obsessed Intense, Eternity
Carolina Herrera Beasts, Insignia
Coach Platinum
Colcci Neon
Comme des Garcons Wonderwood
David Beckham Classic Blue
Davidoff Cool Water Night Dive
Dolce & Gabbana The One (var.)
Harvey Prince Big
Henderson Sport Aviator
Houbigant Bois Mystique
Hugo Boss Bottled United, Cashmere Patchouli, Just Different
Issey Miyake L'Eau Majeure, Shades of Kolam
Jequiti Rodrigo Faro Unico
Joop! Wow! (var.)
Karl Lagerfeld Ocean View
Lacoste L.12.12. Noir, Match Point
Lionel Richie Hello
Mansfield Sortilege
MetaScent Shrine
M. Micallef Azure Crystal
Moschino Toy Boy
Natura Essencial Mirra, Homem Essence, Homem Verum, Kaiak Expedicao, Sintonia Impacto
O Boticario Egeo Blue, Horizonte, Malbec (var.)
Otto Kern Cool Contrast
Pace
Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Black XS Potion
Pal Zileri Essenza di Aoud
Panama 1924 Fefe
Pierre Guillaume Monsieur
Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Cashmere
Roberto Cavalli Deep Desire
Roja Scandal
Yardley Bond St
Yeslam pour Homme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Libre. La Nuit de l'Homme Eau Eletrique
Zara 6.0, C4SHMER4N, Mexico Soul, Poplin Shirt
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Describing a Perfume or Fragrance
Many of us have difficulty describing the scent of an aftershave or cologne or making sense of someone else's description of one. I frequently see statements such as, "I'm not good at describing a scent," but there is no real trick to description; it is just a matter of being careful and methodical. I would like to talk a bit here about how one can attempt to describe a fragrance. The discussion will not include any description of skin care qualities or of bottles or packaging. Those are complete subjects on their own.
Before creating a scent description, it is to identify your reason for describing it. Are you simply describing it for yourself or do you want to communicate your impression of it to someone else? This differentiation will determine whether you want to capture the overall nature or quality of a fragrance, name a certain meaning or feeling that it evokes, break it down technically into individual notes (ingredients), or simply find a way to tell its story. It helps to guide you mentally in approaching your step-by-step assessment.
The first step is to smell and evaluate the item briefly and repeatedly. Spritz or apply a couple drops to an absorbent blotter paper strip, or onto the skin on your hand or wrist, and then hold it about 1-2cm from your nostrils. Close your eyes to help filter out any outside stimuli. As with sipping wine to ascertain its flavor during a tasting, sniff once and then remove the perfume source from your nose area and mentally evaluate the odor. Repeat with short sniffing procedures, taking breaks between them for longer periods of evaluation. This allows the olfactory receptors to recover between sniffs, minimizing olfactory overload and fatigue. It also increases one's ability to 'hold' the smell in memory for longer periods. Also, as the notes in a perfume sample appear and disappear at different rates, separation of the notes can be detected.
Next smell it through the mouth. Hold the scent source on the paper or skin about 2cm below the nose and about 1cm away from the mouth and gently breathe in through parted lips, enabling you to experience the odor in another manner. The vapor passes over the tongue, into the throat, and up the back of the nasal passage to the olfactory receptors. This longer route over wet mucous membranes alters the profile enough to give a somewhat different viewpoint and impression.
While doing the sniffing, make written notes of your nasal and oral perceptions, placing them in order by time to illustrate the flow of the scent's evolution and to help in avoiding becoming stuck on any individual perception. Add notes of any mental connections and feelings that you experience during smelling, recording any words, images, emotions, memories, or associations that come to mind, regardless of whether or not they seem to make sense.
Next, use the basic qualities of the various fragrance families to begin to generally classify the scent being evaluated (romantic floral; exotic, warm Oriental or amber; earthy woody; fresh and green; dry or smoky leather; complex, rich chypre; natural, woodsy fougere; or fantasy, not fitting into any of these groups). If it is floral, is it soliflore (single flower) or a bouquet of flower notes? Try to identify which ingredients dominate or are most prominent and at which stages during your repeated smelling process they appeared and disappeared. What accord gives the perfume its 'backbone' (the main building block for it). At this point, assess generally what ingredients comprise the three note groups (top, heart, base) for the perfume as its scent evolves. The top notes, usually fresher and lighter, strike you first but do not last long, sometimes just a few minutes. The heart (middle) notes contain the most prominent or defining factors and can last up to a few hours. The base notes appear last, often feel deeper and heavier, and can last hours to a day or more. These note groups frequently are not sharply differentiated and instead blend into a 'flow,' but it is useful to try to separate them.
Now refer to your mental and written notes and try to use adjectives to describe the overall quality or 'vibe' of the smell, such as airy, acrid, balmy, bubbly, clean, cool, delicate, exotic, fresh, green, gentle, heavy, light, mild, musty, natural, overpowering, powerful, pungent, refreshing, sweet, spicy, stale, strong, subtle, toxic, warm, wild, or zesty. Lists of such descriptive adjectives for reference can easily be found. In addition to adjectives (e.g. 'leathery') giving the scent effect, the words can take the form of an adverb (angrily, amusingly), gerund (driving, raging), or a noun ('the smell of leather') that defines or conjures a specific source. If you have images in your mind from smelling the fragrance, describe this mental picture, such as 'light and airy fresh in a blue sky after a light rain'). Be specific; for example, one can differentiate between cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke impressions and between those and the smell of burning rubber or oil. If something smells fruity or woody, try to identify the specific fruit(s) or wood(s). You can also use strong, active verbs in your description: does the smell permeate, confuse, distract, cool off, conjure, suggest, command, or calm? Or is it associated with activities such as baking, digging, sweating, lifting drifting, whispering? Notice and make note of any multi-dimensional or complex structure of the scent that implies a combination of these descriptive words. Try to identify also what it is not, such as 'no floral notes,' 'not sweet,' or 'not fruity,' in addition to what it is.
In recording these descriptions, borrow words from other senses, such as sight (bright, dark, clear, purple, vivid, dull, multicolored), sound (harmonious, dissident, loud, quiet, fast, slow), touch (sharp, dull, smooth, rough, cool, hot, cottony, silky), and taste (sweet, sour, savory, salty, tart, bitter, refreshing, crisp). Use metaphors: "It was like a slow stroll down a shaded forest path in the early morning." For a pleasant scent, use alternate words such as aroma, aura, bouquet, or essence in the description. If the scent evokes negative responses, use antonyms such as odor, stench, stink, or reek.
Visualize what the smell does to you subjectively, using creative imagery. Does it creep stealthily into your nose? Does it wrap around you gently? Does it follow or surprise you? Does it make you feel like you're flying? Is it startling or jarring, soothing or comforting? Does it make you feel better? If it makes you feel good, how? Does it evoke specific feelings and emotions, such as happiness, sadness, or melancholy, or conjure associations with past events? Write these down too.
To finish the evaluation, it is sometimes useful to distinguish whether a scent is most suitable for a particular gender, although this has become quite fluid. The gender distinction probably arose when women who had worked at jobs during World War II were replaced by men returning from combat, and the women were 'reassigned' to their designated role in the nuclear family (bearing children to replace the men killed and caring for the house and family). To expand the perfume market to men who previously just wore aftershave, marketers began to call some perfumes colognes and to give them macho descriptions. In current perfume discussion, this gender differentiation is just a simple prop to better understand the fragrance. Although one might say that an accord in masculine in style, women also might wear it and like it, and vice versa. In addition, at this point you can try to relate the fragrance to other scents historically to identify whether the particular one being evaluated is a development of any kind, an 'evolution' or a 'revolution,' or has unusual 'twists' or fresh approaches.
Ideally, repeat your evaluation on other days, varying the time of day, whether or not you have eaten or drunk anything recently, your own mood, the lighting and temperature in the room, and the weather, since all of these have effects. However, it recommended that you always try to smell the fragrance in a generally peaceful and quiet environment so that your other senses do not distract your nose. And it is best that you do it alone, without being influenced at the time by the responses of others. However, after you have evaluated a scent, then you can listen to others' ideas, descriptions, and comments for comparison to your own and to make logical connections, but do not allow them to discourage your own sensory impressions.
To increase your own ability to describe scents, try to pay attention to the smells of things in your daily life - in the rooms of your house, your workplace, the gym, retail stores and businesses, and in public places such as hospitals and airports. Each location has hundreds of different scent qualities, from fresh, stale, or air conditioned air, light bulbs and electrical appliances, roads and other surfaces and their vehicles, weather conditions, plants, and people and animals. Identifying and naming or describing the various smells to yourself will sharpen your talent for describing perfumes.
Pay attention also to descriptions of smell when you hear them or see them in writing, such as in advertising, poems, or inspirational or motivational text. Compare these descriptions to your own, in order refine your own impressions of a particular product and to improve your own overall ability to describe fragrances. Note, however, that marketing descriptions often do not offer a specific accurate definition ('like orange and ginger'), but rather a broad, subjective impression ('a tropical sensation that a strong, natural man needs'). A good marketer can find many associations for a given ingredient. For example, Mugler Alien Flora Future has notes of citrus, Buddha wood, amber, and sandalwood, but it is presented in advertising as a product "whose color reminds you of the sky at dawn, hides a fragrance composed with a vision of light at the heart of a desert - strong and beautiful... It makes everything possible: loving, dreaming, being yourself." Such a description, of course, is more successful in encouraging the consumer to buy the product than a list of ingredients is, but it allows the customer to know the type of personality that it most likely suits (and which they might aspire to be), perhaps giving them the opportunity to use a fragrance which might help to make their self-image or image to others more positive and attractive.
Finally, in formulating a fragrance description, keep in mind who your audience is if other than just yourself. Remember that what you intend to convey may not be exactly what someone else hears or sees, especially when you use subjective words such as manly, clean, fresh, tasteful, mature, elegant, modern, sexy, cheap, etc. It is important to tailor your description to the specific person or people who will be receiving it.
Many of us have difficulty describing the scent of an aftershave or cologne or making sense of someone else's description of one. I frequently see statements such as, "I'm not good at describing a scent," but there is no real trick to description; it is just a matter of being careful and methodical. I would like to talk a bit here about how one can attempt to describe a fragrance. The discussion will not include any description of skin care qualities or of bottles or packaging. Those are complete subjects on their own.
Before creating a scent description, it is to identify your reason for describing it. Are you simply describing it for yourself or do you want to communicate your impression of it to someone else? This differentiation will determine whether you want to capture the overall nature or quality of a fragrance, name a certain meaning or feeling that it evokes, break it down technically into individual notes (ingredients), or simply find a way to tell its story. It helps to guide you mentally in approaching your step-by-step assessment.
The first step is to smell and evaluate the item briefly and repeatedly. Spritz or apply a couple drops to an absorbent blotter paper strip, or onto the skin on your hand or wrist, and then hold it about 1-2cm from your nostrils. Close your eyes to help filter out any outside stimuli. As with sipping wine to ascertain its flavor during a tasting, sniff once and then remove the perfume source from your nose area and mentally evaluate the odor. Repeat with short sniffing procedures, taking breaks between them for longer periods of evaluation. This allows the olfactory receptors to recover between sniffs, minimizing olfactory overload and fatigue. It also increases one's ability to 'hold' the smell in memory for longer periods. Also, as the notes in a perfume sample appear and disappear at different rates, separation of the notes can be detected.
Next smell it through the mouth. Hold the scent source on the paper or skin about 2cm below the nose and about 1cm away from the mouth and gently breathe in through parted lips, enabling you to experience the odor in another manner. The vapor passes over the tongue, into the throat, and up the back of the nasal passage to the olfactory receptors. This longer route over wet mucous membranes alters the profile enough to give a somewhat different viewpoint and impression.
While doing the sniffing, make written notes of your nasal and oral perceptions, placing them in order by time to illustrate the flow of the scent's evolution and to help in avoiding becoming stuck on any individual perception. Add notes of any mental connections and feelings that you experience during smelling, recording any words, images, emotions, memories, or associations that come to mind, regardless of whether or not they seem to make sense.
Next, use the basic qualities of the various fragrance families to begin to generally classify the scent being evaluated (romantic floral; exotic, warm Oriental or amber; earthy woody; fresh and green; dry or smoky leather; complex, rich chypre; natural, woodsy fougere; or fantasy, not fitting into any of these groups). If it is floral, is it soliflore (single flower) or a bouquet of flower notes? Try to identify which ingredients dominate or are most prominent and at which stages during your repeated smelling process they appeared and disappeared. What accord gives the perfume its 'backbone' (the main building block for it). At this point, assess generally what ingredients comprise the three note groups (top, heart, base) for the perfume as its scent evolves. The top notes, usually fresher and lighter, strike you first but do not last long, sometimes just a few minutes. The heart (middle) notes contain the most prominent or defining factors and can last up to a few hours. The base notes appear last, often feel deeper and heavier, and can last hours to a day or more. These note groups frequently are not sharply differentiated and instead blend into a 'flow,' but it is useful to try to separate them.
Now refer to your mental and written notes and try to use adjectives to describe the overall quality or 'vibe' of the smell, such as airy, acrid, balmy, bubbly, clean, cool, delicate, exotic, fresh, green, gentle, heavy, light, mild, musty, natural, overpowering, powerful, pungent, refreshing, sweet, spicy, stale, strong, subtle, toxic, warm, wild, or zesty. Lists of such descriptive adjectives for reference can easily be found. In addition to adjectives (e.g. 'leathery') giving the scent effect, the words can take the form of an adverb (angrily, amusingly), gerund (driving, raging), or a noun ('the smell of leather') that defines or conjures a specific source. If you have images in your mind from smelling the fragrance, describe this mental picture, such as 'light and airy fresh in a blue sky after a light rain'). Be specific; for example, one can differentiate between cigarette, cigar, and pipe smoke impressions and between those and the smell of burning rubber or oil. If something smells fruity or woody, try to identify the specific fruit(s) or wood(s). You can also use strong, active verbs in your description: does the smell permeate, confuse, distract, cool off, conjure, suggest, command, or calm? Or is it associated with activities such as baking, digging, sweating, lifting drifting, whispering? Notice and make note of any multi-dimensional or complex structure of the scent that implies a combination of these descriptive words. Try to identify also what it is not, such as 'no floral notes,' 'not sweet,' or 'not fruity,' in addition to what it is.
In recording these descriptions, borrow words from other senses, such as sight (bright, dark, clear, purple, vivid, dull, multicolored), sound (harmonious, dissident, loud, quiet, fast, slow), touch (sharp, dull, smooth, rough, cool, hot, cottony, silky), and taste (sweet, sour, savory, salty, tart, bitter, refreshing, crisp). Use metaphors: "It was like a slow stroll down a shaded forest path in the early morning." For a pleasant scent, use alternate words such as aroma, aura, bouquet, or essence in the description. If the scent evokes negative responses, use antonyms such as odor, stench, stink, or reek.
Visualize what the smell does to you subjectively, using creative imagery. Does it creep stealthily into your nose? Does it wrap around you gently? Does it follow or surprise you? Does it make you feel like you're flying? Is it startling or jarring, soothing or comforting? Does it make you feel better? If it makes you feel good, how? Does it evoke specific feelings and emotions, such as happiness, sadness, or melancholy, or conjure associations with past events? Write these down too.
To finish the evaluation, it is sometimes useful to distinguish whether a scent is most suitable for a particular gender, although this has become quite fluid. The gender distinction probably arose when women who had worked at jobs during World War II were replaced by men returning from combat, and the women were 'reassigned' to their designated role in the nuclear family (bearing children to replace the men killed and caring for the house and family). To expand the perfume market to men who previously just wore aftershave, marketers began to call some perfumes colognes and to give them macho descriptions. In current perfume discussion, this gender differentiation is just a simple prop to better understand the fragrance. Although one might say that an accord in masculine in style, women also might wear it and like it, and vice versa. In addition, at this point you can try to relate the fragrance to other scents historically to identify whether the particular one being evaluated is a development of any kind, an 'evolution' or a 'revolution,' or has unusual 'twists' or fresh approaches.
Ideally, repeat your evaluation on other days, varying the time of day, whether or not you have eaten or drunk anything recently, your own mood, the lighting and temperature in the room, and the weather, since all of these have effects. However, it recommended that you always try to smell the fragrance in a generally peaceful and quiet environment so that your other senses do not distract your nose. And it is best that you do it alone, without being influenced at the time by the responses of others. However, after you have evaluated a scent, then you can listen to others' ideas, descriptions, and comments for comparison to your own and to make logical connections, but do not allow them to discourage your own sensory impressions.
To increase your own ability to describe scents, try to pay attention to the smells of things in your daily life - in the rooms of your house, your workplace, the gym, retail stores and businesses, and in public places such as hospitals and airports. Each location has hundreds of different scent qualities, from fresh, stale, or air conditioned air, light bulbs and electrical appliances, roads and other surfaces and their vehicles, weather conditions, plants, and people and animals. Identifying and naming or describing the various smells to yourself will sharpen your talent for describing perfumes.
Pay attention also to descriptions of smell when you hear them or see them in writing, such as in advertising, poems, or inspirational or motivational text. Compare these descriptions to your own, in order refine your own impressions of a particular product and to improve your own overall ability to describe fragrances. Note, however, that marketing descriptions often do not offer a specific accurate definition ('like orange and ginger'), but rather a broad, subjective impression ('a tropical sensation that a strong, natural man needs'). A good marketer can find many associations for a given ingredient. For example, Mugler Alien Flora Future has notes of citrus, Buddha wood, amber, and sandalwood, but it is presented in advertising as a product "whose color reminds you of the sky at dawn, hides a fragrance composed with a vision of light at the heart of a desert - strong and beautiful... It makes everything possible: loving, dreaming, being yourself." Such a description, of course, is more successful in encouraging the consumer to buy the product than a list of ingredients is, but it allows the customer to know the type of personality that it most likely suits (and which they might aspire to be), perhaps giving them the opportunity to use a fragrance which might help to make their self-image or image to others more positive and attractive.
Finally, in formulating a fragrance description, keep in mind who your audience is if other than just yourself. Remember that what you intend to convey may not be exactly what someone else hears or sees, especially when you use subjective words such as manly, clean, fresh, tasteful, mature, elegant, modern, sexy, cheap, etc. It is important to tailor your description to the specific person or people who will be receiving it.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Drydown and Fixatives
When wearing a fragrance, the scent evolves in stages, with the smells immediately after application, half an hour later, then 2 hours later being quite different from each other. This is because the aromatic ingredients evaporate at different rates due to their varying volatilities. The first smell, the top notes, often lasts just 5-15 minutes. After the top note molecules evaporate, the middle notes comprising the 'heart' of the fragrance arise and usually last for 1/2-3 hours. The final stage of the development, after the perfume has dried on the skin and the top and heart notes have become less discernible, is called the drydown by most experts, with the base notes revealing the 'body' of the scent at that time. This drydown generally lasts around 2-6 hours, but can even persist for up to 12 hours. (Some writers define the drydown as the phase of the fragrance's evolution starting after the top notes have evaporated, and a few even use the term for the whole progression of the fragrance from immediately after application to the end.)
Compositions that contain more of deep or heavy-molecule base notes will generally have more 'tenacity' ( will last longer) than ones composed mainly of lighter, fresher notes that evaporate or oxidize more quickly. The scent longevity is affected by the species of plant used (the dozens of different jasmine extracts varying greatly in longevity, for example), the extraction method (steam distilled vs. CO2 extracted vs. cold pressed, etc.), and whether or not natural isolates (which make a perfume more linear, more dramatic and longer-lasting) are included. The skill of the perfumer also can have an influence, since a more skilled person can utilize specific blending techniques and types and concentrations of ingrdients to extend the drydown. In addition, the quality of the ingredients used has a significant impact on the depth and staying power. And finally, the higher the concentration, the longer the fragrance generally should last on the skin, although this is not always a direct correlation.
Essences usually found in the base note category include gourmand scents (vanilla, cocoa, brown sugar), woods (sandalwood, patchouli, cedarwood), resins, oakmoss, vetiver, clary sage, musks, pine, leather, and tobacco. Although the note structure of differing types of fragrance compositions may be the same, alcohol-based products reach drydown faster because of their fast evaporation speed; and they often contain less essential oil, so the drydown is shorter. Also, perfumes tend to cling to skin oils, so they last significantly longer on oilier-skinned people.
With the use of added fixatives (aromatic ingredients that fix or prolong the scent), this phase can last for several hours. As the scent molecules react with each other and the air of the environment, they also react in a unique way with your skin, with some being absorbed. Your skin's particular absorption rate affects how a fragrance smells on you as it moves through its stages, and the absorption is affected by age, diet, general health, body and skin chemistry, and hormone levels. Therefore, although the drydown of a perfume may have some general qualities for everyone, its body unfolds in a singular way on each person.
Synthetic ingredients are engineered to maintain their scent for longer without changing, and they often contain chemical additives (such as phthalates and synthetic musks) designed to help the scent adhere to the skin, so synthetic fragrances generally last longer, but they usually don't expose as many different nuances as natural ones.
Although a perfume's drydown should have a strong influence on a decision to purchase, it frequently does not. As the expert Kate Foster said, "When you buy any fragrance, it's usually based on the top note since it's the first thing you smell. We'll all heard you should walk around and see how the fragrance reacts and changes over time, but most people don't do that. It's the first impression that sells us."
Smell Longevity vs. Intensity
A common misconception is that if a fragrance lasts a long time it will have strong smell. But as noted previously, this is not always true. For example, synthetic blends of orange notes generally have a low scent impact and have a life of under 8 hours. Natural sweet orange essential oil has a moderate strength and longevity of around 8 hours or more. Synthetic orange fixative has a high strength, as well as lasting up to 60 hours. On the other hand, orange peel-like aldehyde C-10 decanal has extremely high odor strength but only last about 10 hours. These various materials can be blended in different proportions to produce a wide range of scent outcomes, and this approach is used frequently by experienced master perfumers.
Extending the Drydown
There are several tricks that can help to make the drydown phase of a fragrance last longer:
- Don't shake the fragrance bottle. Shaking just mixes in air that reduces the overall quality.
- Apply right after showering, when the skin is moist and your pores are most open, and then wait a few minutes for the scent to dry before dressing.
- Moisturize first with an unscented oil-based moisturizer lotion or body oil, applying the perfume after the moisturizer or oil is absorbed; or apply petroleum jelly, which will hold the fragrance longer, to pulse points.
- Layer the fragrance, using matching products (aftershave, body lotion, cologne, etc.) if available.
- Switch to a stronger formulation, such as eau de parfum, pure parfum, or extrait. Cologne or eau de toilette will generally last 2-3 hours, eau de parfum 4-5 hours, and parfum concentrates 5+ hours.
- Apply at other skin areas in addition to pulse points (insides of elbows, nape of neck, wrists). Fragrance rises, so application to the lower part of the body, such as the back of the knees, will make the scent last longer. Some recommend spraying your hairbrush or comb as well as your skin: hair is porous and can sometimes release the scent more slowly than the skin. However, direct application of alcohol-based products can dry out the hair.
- Spritz a 'mist' of the scent onto a scarf or your shirt, and your body heat will make the fragrance emerge gradually. But be aware that some products can stain or damage garments.
- Don't get overheated soon after application, for example by working out at the gym, since body heat and sweat will wear out the scent more quickly.
- Don't rub the perfume into your skin; rubbing 'bruises' the scent and breaks down some of the notes. Just spray or dab it on and gently pat.
- Keep your bottled fragrance out of direct sunlight and heat, which can decrease the overall longevity. A cool, dark, and dry environment is best. Storing the fragrance in its original box can be helpful.
Fixatives
Fixatives are natural or synthetic materials added to a fragrance that may:
- slow down the rate of evaporation and/or oxidation of the more volatile or delicate materials in the composition, making aroma changes more gradual
- lend a particular note throughout all the sages of evaporation without affecting the evaporation rates of other materials (although many have no aroma of their own)
- improve, fortify or transport the vapors, lending a retentive effect
- add a stabilizing action by holding the odors of the volatile ingredients
A fixative restricts and equalizes the vapor pressures of the ingredients, and thus their volatilities. Fixatives include natural resinoids (benzoin, labdanum, frankincense, myrrh, olibanum, storax, tolu balsam) or molecules originally obtained from animals but now synthesized (ambroxide, civetone, muscone). The animal products contained pheromones that were 'designed' by nature to be long-lasting and resistant to time and weather for marking a male's territory. Natural fixatives used now can be in the form of tinctures, gums, resins, powders, or oils. Other synthetic fixatives include substances with low volatility (diphenymethane, cyclopentadecanolide, benzyl salicylate) and virtually odorless solvents with very low vapor pressures (benzyl benzoate, diethyl phthalate, triethyl citrate). Although oils and oil mixes have been used on the skin since ancient Egypt, with employment of base notes for longevity, actual fixatives have been added only since 'modern' perfumes have been used on the skin (rather than just on handkerchiefs, scarves, and gloves to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing), i.e. since the 18th century.
Fixative strength of a material is determined objectively by a procedure in which 1mg each of an aroma compound and a fixative are applied to perfume blotters, allowed to evaporate in controlled conditions for specified periods of time, extracted into methanol at the end of each time period, and then analyzed by chromatography.
For convenience, some perfumers use what are called fixative bases, wholesale long-lasting accord blends that help to anchor the perfume and add overall longevity; they sometimes have a scent profile that provides the complete base notes for the scent. These products often have names like 'amber animal base accord' or 'wood base accord.'
Perfumers do not always agree about the value or use of fixatives. Says Guy Robert, the perfumer for Madame Rochas, "The durability of a perfume is not easy to acieve, and nobody knows how to do it. I hate and find stupid the idea of fixatives."
Remember that fixative qualities of an oil and the tenacity of the oil are not the same thing. A perfume ingredient may have immense tenacity, lingering for a very long time on the skin, but might have little impact on the evaporation rate of the other ingredients. Fixatives may make up a small or large percentage of the overall blend depending on the technology used and type of fragrance. Expense can sometimes limit the use of fixatives.
Some common non-scenting fixatives are:
Glucam P20
Isopropyl palmitate
Diethyl Pthalate
Glycerin
Benzyl benzoate (weak odor)
PVP
Hydroyethyl cellulose
Vitamin E isomers (slight smell)
Fixatives that also add a smell include the following:
Fixolide
Vanillin and vanilla
Cinnamic alcohol
Benzophenone
Musk ketone
Fixative 505
Balsam of Peru
Benzoin
Tonka bean
Rosemary
Sandalwood
Amyris oil
Copaiba oil
Men's fragrances reputed to have greatest longevity:
Amouage Man, Jubilation XXV
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense
Armani Acqua di Gio, Stronger by You
Azzaro Wanted
Bvlgari Man in Black
Byredo Sundazed
Chanel Bleu, Allure Homme Sport, Antaeus, Egoiste
Christian Dior Homme Intense
Creed Aventus, Green Irish Tweed
Dior Eau Sauvage, Fahrenheit, Homme Intense
Dolce & Gabbana K, The One
Dunhill Icon
Estee Lauder Aramis
Givenchy Gentleman
Gucci Oud, Guilty
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal, Habit Rouge
Hermes Terre d'Hermes, Eau d'Orange Verte
Hugo Boss The Scent, Bottled
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
John Varvatos Artisan
Lalique Encre Noire
Le Labo Santal 33
Marly Herod
Montale Black Musk, Red Vetiver
Mont Blanc Legend
Narciso Rodriguez For Him
Nasomatto Duro
Nautica Blue
Paco Rabanne pour Homme, 1 Million, Invictus
Perry Ellis 360 Red
Prada Amber
Ralph Lauren Polo Black
Roja Elysium
Thierry Mugler A*Men
Tom Ford Noir, Tobacco Vanille, Oud Wood, Tuscan Leather
Versace Eros
Victor & Rolf Spicebomb
Yves St. Laurent Rive Gauche, La Nuit de l'Homme, Noir, The Man
When wearing a fragrance, the scent evolves in stages, with the smells immediately after application, half an hour later, then 2 hours later being quite different from each other. This is because the aromatic ingredients evaporate at different rates due to their varying volatilities. The first smell, the top notes, often lasts just 5-15 minutes. After the top note molecules evaporate, the middle notes comprising the 'heart' of the fragrance arise and usually last for 1/2-3 hours. The final stage of the development, after the perfume has dried on the skin and the top and heart notes have become less discernible, is called the drydown by most experts, with the base notes revealing the 'body' of the scent at that time. This drydown generally lasts around 2-6 hours, but can even persist for up to 12 hours. (Some writers define the drydown as the phase of the fragrance's evolution starting after the top notes have evaporated, and a few even use the term for the whole progression of the fragrance from immediately after application to the end.)
Compositions that contain more of deep or heavy-molecule base notes will generally have more 'tenacity' ( will last longer) than ones composed mainly of lighter, fresher notes that evaporate or oxidize more quickly. The scent longevity is affected by the species of plant used (the dozens of different jasmine extracts varying greatly in longevity, for example), the extraction method (steam distilled vs. CO2 extracted vs. cold pressed, etc.), and whether or not natural isolates (which make a perfume more linear, more dramatic and longer-lasting) are included. The skill of the perfumer also can have an influence, since a more skilled person can utilize specific blending techniques and types and concentrations of ingrdients to extend the drydown. In addition, the quality of the ingredients used has a significant impact on the depth and staying power. And finally, the higher the concentration, the longer the fragrance generally should last on the skin, although this is not always a direct correlation.
Essences usually found in the base note category include gourmand scents (vanilla, cocoa, brown sugar), woods (sandalwood, patchouli, cedarwood), resins, oakmoss, vetiver, clary sage, musks, pine, leather, and tobacco. Although the note structure of differing types of fragrance compositions may be the same, alcohol-based products reach drydown faster because of their fast evaporation speed; and they often contain less essential oil, so the drydown is shorter. Also, perfumes tend to cling to skin oils, so they last significantly longer on oilier-skinned people.
With the use of added fixatives (aromatic ingredients that fix or prolong the scent), this phase can last for several hours. As the scent molecules react with each other and the air of the environment, they also react in a unique way with your skin, with some being absorbed. Your skin's particular absorption rate affects how a fragrance smells on you as it moves through its stages, and the absorption is affected by age, diet, general health, body and skin chemistry, and hormone levels. Therefore, although the drydown of a perfume may have some general qualities for everyone, its body unfolds in a singular way on each person.
Synthetic ingredients are engineered to maintain their scent for longer without changing, and they often contain chemical additives (such as phthalates and synthetic musks) designed to help the scent adhere to the skin, so synthetic fragrances generally last longer, but they usually don't expose as many different nuances as natural ones.
Although a perfume's drydown should have a strong influence on a decision to purchase, it frequently does not. As the expert Kate Foster said, "When you buy any fragrance, it's usually based on the top note since it's the first thing you smell. We'll all heard you should walk around and see how the fragrance reacts and changes over time, but most people don't do that. It's the first impression that sells us."
Smell Longevity vs. Intensity
A common misconception is that if a fragrance lasts a long time it will have strong smell. But as noted previously, this is not always true. For example, synthetic blends of orange notes generally have a low scent impact and have a life of under 8 hours. Natural sweet orange essential oil has a moderate strength and longevity of around 8 hours or more. Synthetic orange fixative has a high strength, as well as lasting up to 60 hours. On the other hand, orange peel-like aldehyde C-10 decanal has extremely high odor strength but only last about 10 hours. These various materials can be blended in different proportions to produce a wide range of scent outcomes, and this approach is used frequently by experienced master perfumers.
Extending the Drydown
There are several tricks that can help to make the drydown phase of a fragrance last longer:
- Don't shake the fragrance bottle. Shaking just mixes in air that reduces the overall quality.
- Apply right after showering, when the skin is moist and your pores are most open, and then wait a few minutes for the scent to dry before dressing.
- Moisturize first with an unscented oil-based moisturizer lotion or body oil, applying the perfume after the moisturizer or oil is absorbed; or apply petroleum jelly, which will hold the fragrance longer, to pulse points.
- Layer the fragrance, using matching products (aftershave, body lotion, cologne, etc.) if available.
- Switch to a stronger formulation, such as eau de parfum, pure parfum, or extrait. Cologne or eau de toilette will generally last 2-3 hours, eau de parfum 4-5 hours, and parfum concentrates 5+ hours.
- Apply at other skin areas in addition to pulse points (insides of elbows, nape of neck, wrists). Fragrance rises, so application to the lower part of the body, such as the back of the knees, will make the scent last longer. Some recommend spraying your hairbrush or comb as well as your skin: hair is porous and can sometimes release the scent more slowly than the skin. However, direct application of alcohol-based products can dry out the hair.
- Spritz a 'mist' of the scent onto a scarf or your shirt, and your body heat will make the fragrance emerge gradually. But be aware that some products can stain or damage garments.
- Don't get overheated soon after application, for example by working out at the gym, since body heat and sweat will wear out the scent more quickly.
- Don't rub the perfume into your skin; rubbing 'bruises' the scent and breaks down some of the notes. Just spray or dab it on and gently pat.
- Keep your bottled fragrance out of direct sunlight and heat, which can decrease the overall longevity. A cool, dark, and dry environment is best. Storing the fragrance in its original box can be helpful.
Fixatives
Fixatives are natural or synthetic materials added to a fragrance that may:
- slow down the rate of evaporation and/or oxidation of the more volatile or delicate materials in the composition, making aroma changes more gradual
- lend a particular note throughout all the sages of evaporation without affecting the evaporation rates of other materials (although many have no aroma of their own)
- improve, fortify or transport the vapors, lending a retentive effect
- add a stabilizing action by holding the odors of the volatile ingredients
A fixative restricts and equalizes the vapor pressures of the ingredients, and thus their volatilities. Fixatives include natural resinoids (benzoin, labdanum, frankincense, myrrh, olibanum, storax, tolu balsam) or molecules originally obtained from animals but now synthesized (ambroxide, civetone, muscone). The animal products contained pheromones that were 'designed' by nature to be long-lasting and resistant to time and weather for marking a male's territory. Natural fixatives used now can be in the form of tinctures, gums, resins, powders, or oils. Other synthetic fixatives include substances with low volatility (diphenymethane, cyclopentadecanolide, benzyl salicylate) and virtually odorless solvents with very low vapor pressures (benzyl benzoate, diethyl phthalate, triethyl citrate). Although oils and oil mixes have been used on the skin since ancient Egypt, with employment of base notes for longevity, actual fixatives have been added only since 'modern' perfumes have been used on the skin (rather than just on handkerchiefs, scarves, and gloves to mask body odors resulting from infrequent bathing), i.e. since the 18th century.
Fixative strength of a material is determined objectively by a procedure in which 1mg each of an aroma compound and a fixative are applied to perfume blotters, allowed to evaporate in controlled conditions for specified periods of time, extracted into methanol at the end of each time period, and then analyzed by chromatography.
For convenience, some perfumers use what are called fixative bases, wholesale long-lasting accord blends that help to anchor the perfume and add overall longevity; they sometimes have a scent profile that provides the complete base notes for the scent. These products often have names like 'amber animal base accord' or 'wood base accord.'
Perfumers do not always agree about the value or use of fixatives. Says Guy Robert, the perfumer for Madame Rochas, "The durability of a perfume is not easy to acieve, and nobody knows how to do it. I hate and find stupid the idea of fixatives."
Remember that fixative qualities of an oil and the tenacity of the oil are not the same thing. A perfume ingredient may have immense tenacity, lingering for a very long time on the skin, but might have little impact on the evaporation rate of the other ingredients. Fixatives may make up a small or large percentage of the overall blend depending on the technology used and type of fragrance. Expense can sometimes limit the use of fixatives.
Some common non-scenting fixatives are:
Glucam P20
Isopropyl palmitate
Diethyl Pthalate
Glycerin
Benzyl benzoate (weak odor)
PVP
Hydroyethyl cellulose
Vitamin E isomers (slight smell)
Fixatives that also add a smell include the following:
Fixolide
Vanillin and vanilla
Cinnamic alcohol
Benzophenone
Musk ketone
Fixative 505
Balsam of Peru
Benzoin
Tonka bean
Rosemary
Sandalwood
Amyris oil
Copaiba oil
Men's fragrances reputed to have greatest longevity:
Amouage Man, Jubilation XXV
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense
Armani Acqua di Gio, Stronger by You
Azzaro Wanted
Bvlgari Man in Black
Byredo Sundazed
Chanel Bleu, Allure Homme Sport, Antaeus, Egoiste
Christian Dior Homme Intense
Creed Aventus, Green Irish Tweed
Dior Eau Sauvage, Fahrenheit, Homme Intense
Dolce & Gabbana K, The One
Dunhill Icon
Estee Lauder Aramis
Givenchy Gentleman
Gucci Oud, Guilty
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal, Habit Rouge
Hermes Terre d'Hermes, Eau d'Orange Verte
Hugo Boss The Scent, Bottled
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
John Varvatos Artisan
Lalique Encre Noire
Le Labo Santal 33
Marly Herod
Montale Black Musk, Red Vetiver
Mont Blanc Legend
Narciso Rodriguez For Him
Nasomatto Duro
Nautica Blue
Paco Rabanne pour Homme, 1 Million, Invictus
Perry Ellis 360 Red
Prada Amber
Ralph Lauren Polo Black
Roja Elysium
Thierry Mugler A*Men
Tom Ford Noir, Tobacco Vanille, Oud Wood, Tuscan Leather
Versace Eros
Victor & Rolf Spicebomb
Yves St. Laurent Rive Gauche, La Nuit de l'Homme, Noir, The Man
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Tea
Tea (Camellia sinensis), an evergreen perennial shrub in the Theaceae family, is native to East Asia and probably originated in the border area of north Burma, north Myanmar, southwest China, and Tibet. It grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates, although some varieties can tolerate marine climates in Europe, North America, and New Zealand. The plants are propagated from seed and cuttings and require about 3 years to be ready for harvesting. They can be maintained for harvest for up to 100 years. Tea grows naturally to a height of 15m, but under cultivation it is kept to a 0.5-1m bush size. Leaves are variable in texture and green color, flowers are white, and the fruits are green with 2-3 seeds each.
Leaf size is the chief criterion for classification of tea plants: Assam type has the largest leaves, China type has the smallest, and Cambodian type (a hybrid of the two) has leaves of intermediate size. Darjeeling tea also appears to be a hybrid of the Chinese and Assam teas. Chinese small-leaf tea is thought to have come from hybridization of wild tea relatives, although there are no surviving wild populations. It is estimated to have diverged from Assam-type tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese and Indian Assams teas diverged about 3,000 years ago. Two principal tea varieties are employed for brewing and perfumes, Chinese small-leaf (C. sinensis var. sinensis), used for most Chinese, Formosan, and Japanese green and white teas, and Assam (C. sinensis var. assamica), used in most Indian black teas except for Darjeeling.
History
A legend says that a breeze blew a couple of C. sinensis leaves from a nearby tree into the just-boiled water that mythical Chinese emperor Shennong was about to drink around 2700 BC, subtly changing its color and flavor and creating the first tea infusion.
It is theorized by some that Buddhists grew, harvested, and produced tea as early as 500 BC, drinking it for refreshment and to aid meditation, and that they spread the practice during their travels between China and India. The earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the tomb of a Chinese emperor, indicating that tea was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as the 2nd century BC, probably as a medicinal drink. A written Chinese text from 59 BC contains a reference to boiling of tea, and the first written notation of tea cultivation dates from the same period. The drink became very popular during the Tang dynasty (~600-900) in China, and from there its use spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Green tea is said to have become popular in Japan by around 1190, when a Zen priest visiting China returned to Japan with tea plants and seeds and used the tea for meditation rituals within his own community of monks, from which it eventually spread throughout Japan.
During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form, then during the succeeding Song dynasty (960-1279) loose-leaf tea became popular. During the Yuan (1271-1368) and Ming dynasties (1368-1644), tea leaves were pan-fried, then rolled and dried, a process that stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark, thus allowing the tea to remain green. During the 15th century, the process for oolong tea, in which leaves were allowed to partially oxidize before pan-frying, was developed. Subsequently, black tea, for which the leaves were allowed to oxidize fully, was also used in parts of China. Yellow tea was apparently an accidental discovery during the Ming dynasty production of green tea, when careless practices allowed leaves to turn a yellow color, producing a different flavor and aroma.
Tea was first introduced to Western priests and merchants in China in the 16th century, at which time it was termed chá; the earliest European reference to tea ('chiai') appeared in Venice in 1545. Tea appeared in Russia in the late 16th or early 17th century, when Cossacks visiting China were given tea to take back to the Tsar as a gift. In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began to move large shipments of tea to Europe, and tea became a fashionable drink in The Hague. The Dutch introduced the drink to Germany, Britain, and France, and eventually to New Amsterdam (New York). The assamica tea variety was discovered growing wild in the Assam region of India in 1823 and was found to be better suited to production of black teas than the Chinese one. However, Chinese small-leaf tea also was introduced to the Darjeeling region of India by the British in the late 18th and early 19th century. Indian black tea was first sold to the English public in 1838 and quickly became a widely popular drink there. It is thought that the main reasons black tea came to be preferred in England over green tea are that (1) the delicate aroma of green tea deteriorated over the months of sea transport and (2) the hard water quality in England diluted the flavor and fragrance of green tea too much. In addition, sugar importation from British Caribbean colonies increased greatly in the 1700s, and the growing trend of adding sugar to tea may have fueled the greater demand for strong black tea. Tea originally was drunk in India only by anglicized residents, but it became widely popular in the 1950s after a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.
Processing
Tea is generally divided into categories based on how it is processed: white (wilted and unoxidized), yellow (the same as white but allowed to yellow a little naturally), green (unwilted and unoxidized), oolong (wilted under direct strong sunlight, then bruised and twisted and partially oxidized), black (wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized), and post-fermented (a dark green tea that is allowed to ferment/compost). After picking, tea leaves quickly begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried. This enzymatic oxidation process causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as tannins are released. Commercially, the darkening is stopped at predetermined stages by various heating heating processes. When the tea has been heated and dried, it is sorted and graded.
After basic processing, teas can be altered by other steps before being sold, including blending, flavoring, scenting, and decaffeination. Blending is the combination of different teas together to obtain consistency, improved taste, and/or higher price. Flavoring and scenting are usually accomplished through direct addition of agents such as ginger, cloves, mint, spearmint, cardamom, bergamot, and vanilla. But because tea easily absorbs and retains odors, alternatively it can also just be placed for a time in close proximity to an aromatic ingredient, a technique used in production of traditional jasmine tea. Lapsang Souchong is scented by being exposed to the smoke of burning pine root. Tea traditionally was drunk with added milk in cultures where dairy products were consumed, including Tibet and other Himalayan areas. The addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680, and it became generally customary in England to drink tea with milk, especially hearty black teas such as the Assams, as well as Indian masala chai. In parts of Europe, it became popular to serve tea with lemon juice and/or either sugar or honey.
Black Tea
Black tea is divided into two types, orthodox (made in a time-consuming process with a traditional rolling machine) and CTC (a faster 'crushed, torn, and curled' process, with a Rotervan machine). Black tea has the most astringency and bitterness, with a flavor that is spicy, malty, fruity (slightly lemony), or roasted, depending upon processing. Tea from India's rainy, tropical Assam region has bold and malty characteristics; Darjeeling tea grown in mountainous Indian areas is softer and more herbaceous and can change from season to season; Sri Lankan tea (known commonly as Ceylon tea) varies depending upon whether it is from the cool mountains or the humid and tropical coastal areas but generally is strong, brisk, and spicy; and Kenyan black tea, primarily made in the CTC style, is known to be assertive and full-bodied.
Green Tea
Green teas from China have a grassy, earthy, roasted odor profile due to pan-firing (either once or multiple times, in a basket, pan, or drum over charcoal or gas flame, electric heat, or hot air). And those from Japan have a quite different sweet, vegetal, or seaweed-like aroma because of steaming.
White Tea
White tea, from China's Fujian province, is the least processed, neither rolled nor fired. The leaves, plucked when they first emerge and are still covered in fine white hairs, are allowed to wither and dry naturally in a carefully controlled environment, resulting in a tea with an extremely fresh, soft, and delicate scent. Sometimes the leaves are steamed very briefly or exposed to very low heat to help them dry more quickly and avoid oxidation. White tea was not available outside of its Chinese growing province until recently, when leaf processing and preserving methods improved greatly.
'Red' Tea
Red (rooibos, pronounced 'roy-buss') tea has existed as a product for only around 300 years. The plant is an herb (Aspalathus linearis) native to South Africa that is not actually a true C. sinensis tea plant. It is a legume plant that can be brewed into a reddish-brown infusion called 'African red tea' or 'red bush tea.' Oxidation brings out the full red color, as well as the scent and flavor. Rooibos evolved as an international commercial tea crop after the 1930s. In the late 1990s, a less-oxidized, green, and more grassy version was created, and in the 2000s a rooibos extract for perfumes was created. The scent of rooibos is smoky, sweet, woody, grassy, and floral.
Tea Fragrance
It is primarily through exposure to boiling water that tea's complex odor characteristics emerge, and it has been a challenge to the perfumer to simulate the tea experience without this essential preparation element being present. Tea-themed scents considerably. Sometimes components are derived from tea leaves themselves. In other compositions, raw materials are used instead to create an illusion of brewed tea: a few are floral absolutes that are reminiscent of tea, several are herbs and flowers used to brew tisanes and are described as possessing aromas similar that of tea, while others are notes of plants or flowers popularly associated with tea even though they are not actually 'tea-like.'
Fragrance essences that are extracted directly from tea leaves include the following:
Green tea absolute, a dark, sticky, semi-solid mass with an underlying sweet and slightly fruity apricot note and a dry, woody base. It has very low diffusiveness even with dilution in alcohol. It colors perfumes dark green.
Green tea CO2, with an appearance like Japanese matcha paste and a smell that is herbaceous and somewhat nutty, said by some to be the closest of the tea essences to nature. It is somewhat more diffusive. The extract dyes perfumes light green but leaves insoluble particles in alcohol.
Black tea absolute, with a scent even more diffuse and intense but still somewhat subtle. It is thick, resembling dark molasses.
Maté absolute, intense, bitter and reminiscent of hay, like its namesake tea beverage. It works well in fougere compositions.
Rooibos absolute, sweet and rich like pipe tobacco. It more often is made into a tincture that has a very subtle, faintly woody, slightly sweet aroma.
Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensisis, in the holly genus) is not related to C. sinensis, but in perfumes it can recreate the effect of green tea, with a crystalline clarity and a soft and musky drydown. Also used sometimes to approximate or complement black tea in fragrances are smoky burnt rubber, birch tar, and caramel.
Notes that are used frequently to scent tea beverages and therefore are strongly associated with tea in perfumery include bergamot (a key ingredient in Earl Grey tea), jasmine sambac (green and fruity, used to perfume jasmine green tea), and lavender (also used in Earl Grey tea as well as being brewed as a tisane on its own). Toasted rice, often mixed with green tea as a drink called genmaicha, has a savory edge that has been paired with flowers in tea perfumes, adding depth to them. Closely associated with oolong tea is osmanthus fragrans, the Chinese olive plant flower. Rosewater, added to liquid tea since ancient Persia, is often combined with it in perfumes. Also added frequently are incense, sandalwood, cardamom, wisteria, lilac, and peony.
Unlike most other fragrant plants used in perfumery, tea leaves have a very subtle, faintly sweet, herbaceous, and green odor profile, without much diffusiveness. The overall quality of the natural aroma varies depending upon the type of tea, the region where it was grown, the growing conditions (the 'terroir'), when the leaves were plucked, and the subsequent processing (e.g. shaping, drying, cutting, and storage).
Japanese teas such as sencha and matcha have grassy, spinach-like scents, while oolongs share some aromatic notes with lilac, rose, and jasmine. Lapsang souchong has a smoky profile. Green tea fragrances frequently have added spices and herbs such as cardamom, nutmeg, and clary sage. Green tea scents in general are considered to be natural, refreshing, sweet, and elegant. The popularity of green tea declined in perfumery during the middle of the 20th century but then soared when much better technology for preservation developed in the 1980s and 1990s. In the later 1990s, with the increased focus on environmental issues and lifestyle diversity, the boom of 'naturalness' and health-consciousness (with its corresponding enthusiasm for Japanese food and drink), the use of green tea fragrance - like other light, transparent, relaxing, and refreshing ones, especially those considered unisex - became even more prevalent. The first synthetic green tea note was produced at the same time, and since then they have become diverse and more commonly used. In addition, a large series of perfumes with gourmand or fruity notes were released and gained acceptance in the 1990s. In this overall context, the scent of tea suddenly became extremely popular, with products like Bvlgari Eau Parfumée (1992), Elizabeth Arden Green Tea (1999), and Lancome Aroma Tonic (1999) appearing in rapid succession. Calvin Klein CK One (1994), a unisex fragrance with a prominent tea note, became a huge success first in Japan and then elsewhere, especially among the younger population. The green tea fragrance boom now appears to have waned since around 2006, although there is still a solid niche for the fragrances.
Masculine or Unisex Fragrances Featuring Tea:
4711 Acqua Colonia Green Tea & Bergamot, Lemon & Ginger (green)
Adolfo Dominguez Agua de Bambu
Alain Daniel French Club (male)
Alfred Dunhill Amalfi Citrus
Alkemia Thé de Ceylon, Apsara, Madam Pearl, Moroccan Tea, Beauty Like the Night (red)
Al-Rehab Green Tea
Altaia Yu Son
Annick Goutal Duel (yerbamate), Eau de Fier
l'Artisan Parfumeur Tea for Two (green), Dzongkha (masala chai), Coeur de Vetiver Sacre, 32 Venenum (masala chai, male)
Atelier Oolang Infini
Ayala Moriel Vetiver Rouge (red)
Azzaro Chrome United, Now (male), Aqua Cèdre Blanc
Bottega Verde Note per Due
Bvlgari Thé (various), Soir (male), Extrême, Omnia (masala chai), Pour Homme (Darjeeling)
By Kilian Bamboo Harmony, Imperial Tea
Calvin Klein One (green), Truth
Christopher Brosius (CB) I Hate Perfume Russian Caravan Tea (black)
Chrome Legend
Comme des Garcons Series 1 (black)
Coty Club Med My Ocean
Creed Silver Mountain Water, Asian Green Tea
Demeter Tea (various)
Derbe Te' Bianco, Te' Nero
Ebba L.A. White Tea
Ed Pnaud l'Impériale
Elizabeth Arden Green Tea, Untold
Emmanuel Levain Bleu
Esscentual Alchemy Gaia Botanical (red)
Fendi 2004
Floris Cefiro
Galimard Lotus Thé Vert, Rafting (male)
Gucci Pour Homme II (male)
Guerlain Homme, Aqua Allegoria Teazzurra (mint), Neroli Outrenoir
Hanae Mori HiM
Hermes Voyage, Eau de Citron Noir, Osmanthe Yunnan (Ooolong), l'Ombre des Merveilles
Hugo Boss Elements Aqua (male)
Issey Miyake Shades of Kolam
Jacques Evard Cyrus Edition Sport
Jacques Fath Yang
Jacomo Aura
Jaguar Classic Black
Jalaine Green Tea
Jean Charles Brosseau Thé Brun
Jo Malone Tea Collection (various, male)
Kenzo Tokyo
Korres White Tea Bergamot Freesia
Lacoste L.12.12. Rouge
Liz Claiborne Curve (various), Realities
Loewe Agua
Maison Margiela Tea Escape
Masque Russian Tea
Memo Paris Eau de Memo, Winter Palace, Oriental Leather
Monotheme Venezia Green Tea (male)
Murdock Black Tea (male)
Nadia Z Camino de Azahar (red, male)
Natura Hoje
Neil Morris Patchouli Narcisse
Nest Indigo
Nishane Wulong Cha
Nouvelle Etoile White Tea
l'Occitane Thé Bergamote, Thé Vert a la Menthe
Oliver & Co. Resina (red)
Ormonde Jayne Champaca (Genmaicha)
Panouge Perle Rare
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Dalai Lama (male)
Pierre Bourdon le Grand Tour (male)
Provence Sante Green Tea
Ralph Lauren White Tea
Rance 1795 Collection Classique 2
Ravenscourt Vanilla Rooibos (red)
Regime des Fleurs Floralia (red)
Rituals Eau des Indes
Rocawear X
Roger & Gallet l'Homme Sport
Serge Lutens Five O'Clock Au Gingembre
Shanghai Tang Jade Dragon (male)
S. Oliver Prime League
Tom Ford White Suede
Unic Thé (various)
Urban Outfitters Thé Matcha (male)
Urban Scents Dark Vanilla (red)
Versace Dreamer
Viktor & Rolf Flowerbomb
Welton London Sencha
Xerjoff 1986
Yves Rocher Thé Vert
Zara Fig
Tea (Camellia sinensis), an evergreen perennial shrub in the Theaceae family, is native to East Asia and probably originated in the border area of north Burma, north Myanmar, southwest China, and Tibet. It grows mainly in tropical and subtropical climates, although some varieties can tolerate marine climates in Europe, North America, and New Zealand. The plants are propagated from seed and cuttings and require about 3 years to be ready for harvesting. They can be maintained for harvest for up to 100 years. Tea grows naturally to a height of 15m, but under cultivation it is kept to a 0.5-1m bush size. Leaves are variable in texture and green color, flowers are white, and the fruits are green with 2-3 seeds each.
Leaf size is the chief criterion for classification of tea plants: Assam type has the largest leaves, China type has the smallest, and Cambodian type (a hybrid of the two) has leaves of intermediate size. Darjeeling tea also appears to be a hybrid of the Chinese and Assam teas. Chinese small-leaf tea is thought to have come from hybridization of wild tea relatives, although there are no surviving wild populations. It is estimated to have diverged from Assam-type tea around 22,000 years ago, while Chinese and Indian Assams teas diverged about 3,000 years ago. Two principal tea varieties are employed for brewing and perfumes, Chinese small-leaf (C. sinensis var. sinensis), used for most Chinese, Formosan, and Japanese green and white teas, and Assam (C. sinensis var. assamica), used in most Indian black teas except for Darjeeling.
History
A legend says that a breeze blew a couple of C. sinensis leaves from a nearby tree into the just-boiled water that mythical Chinese emperor Shennong was about to drink around 2700 BC, subtly changing its color and flavor and creating the first tea infusion.
It is theorized by some that Buddhists grew, harvested, and produced tea as early as 500 BC, drinking it for refreshment and to aid meditation, and that they spread the practice during their travels between China and India. The earliest known physical evidence of tea was discovered in 2016 in the tomb of a Chinese emperor, indicating that tea was drunk by Han dynasty emperors as early as the 2nd century BC, probably as a medicinal drink. A written Chinese text from 59 BC contains a reference to boiling of tea, and the first written notation of tea cultivation dates from the same period. The drink became very popular during the Tang dynasty (~600-900) in China, and from there its use spread to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.
Green tea is said to have become popular in Japan by around 1190, when a Zen priest visiting China returned to Japan with tea plants and seeds and used the tea for meditation rituals within his own community of monks, from which it eventually spread throughout Japan.
During the Tang dynasty, tea was steamed, then pounded and shaped into cake form, then during the succeeding Song dynasty (960-1279) loose-leaf tea became popular. During the Yuan (1271-1368) and Ming dynasties (1368-1644), tea leaves were pan-fried, then rolled and dried, a process that stops the oxidation process which turns the leaves dark, thus allowing the tea to remain green. During the 15th century, the process for oolong tea, in which leaves were allowed to partially oxidize before pan-frying, was developed. Subsequently, black tea, for which the leaves were allowed to oxidize fully, was also used in parts of China. Yellow tea was apparently an accidental discovery during the Ming dynasty production of green tea, when careless practices allowed leaves to turn a yellow color, producing a different flavor and aroma.
Tea was first introduced to Western priests and merchants in China in the 16th century, at which time it was termed chá; the earliest European reference to tea ('chiai') appeared in Venice in 1545. Tea appeared in Russia in the late 16th or early 17th century, when Cossacks visiting China were given tea to take back to the Tsar as a gift. In the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company began to move large shipments of tea to Europe, and tea became a fashionable drink in The Hague. The Dutch introduced the drink to Germany, Britain, and France, and eventually to New Amsterdam (New York). The assamica tea variety was discovered growing wild in the Assam region of India in 1823 and was found to be better suited to production of black teas than the Chinese one. However, Chinese small-leaf tea also was introduced to the Darjeeling region of India by the British in the late 18th and early 19th century. Indian black tea was first sold to the English public in 1838 and quickly became a widely popular drink there. It is thought that the main reasons black tea came to be preferred in England over green tea are that (1) the delicate aroma of green tea deteriorated over the months of sea transport and (2) the hard water quality in England diluted the flavor and fragrance of green tea too much. In addition, sugar importation from British Caribbean colonies increased greatly in the 1700s, and the growing trend of adding sugar to tea may have fueled the greater demand for strong black tea. Tea originally was drunk in India only by anglicized residents, but it became widely popular in the 1950s after a successful advertising campaign by the India Tea Board.
Processing
Tea is generally divided into categories based on how it is processed: white (wilted and unoxidized), yellow (the same as white but allowed to yellow a little naturally), green (unwilted and unoxidized), oolong (wilted under direct strong sunlight, then bruised and twisted and partially oxidized), black (wilted, sometimes crushed, and fully oxidized), and post-fermented (a dark green tea that is allowed to ferment/compost). After picking, tea leaves quickly begin to wilt and oxidize unless immediately dried. This enzymatic oxidation process causes the leaves to turn progressively darker as tannins are released. Commercially, the darkening is stopped at predetermined stages by various heating heating processes. When the tea has been heated and dried, it is sorted and graded.
After basic processing, teas can be altered by other steps before being sold, including blending, flavoring, scenting, and decaffeination. Blending is the combination of different teas together to obtain consistency, improved taste, and/or higher price. Flavoring and scenting are usually accomplished through direct addition of agents such as ginger, cloves, mint, spearmint, cardamom, bergamot, and vanilla. But because tea easily absorbs and retains odors, alternatively it can also just be placed for a time in close proximity to an aromatic ingredient, a technique used in production of traditional jasmine tea. Lapsang Souchong is scented by being exposed to the smoke of burning pine root. Tea traditionally was drunk with added milk in cultures where dairy products were consumed, including Tibet and other Himalayan areas. The addition of milk to tea in Europe was first mentioned in 1680, and it became generally customary in England to drink tea with milk, especially hearty black teas such as the Assams, as well as Indian masala chai. In parts of Europe, it became popular to serve tea with lemon juice and/or either sugar or honey.
Black Tea
Black tea is divided into two types, orthodox (made in a time-consuming process with a traditional rolling machine) and CTC (a faster 'crushed, torn, and curled' process, with a Rotervan machine). Black tea has the most astringency and bitterness, with a flavor that is spicy, malty, fruity (slightly lemony), or roasted, depending upon processing. Tea from India's rainy, tropical Assam region has bold and malty characteristics; Darjeeling tea grown in mountainous Indian areas is softer and more herbaceous and can change from season to season; Sri Lankan tea (known commonly as Ceylon tea) varies depending upon whether it is from the cool mountains or the humid and tropical coastal areas but generally is strong, brisk, and spicy; and Kenyan black tea, primarily made in the CTC style, is known to be assertive and full-bodied.
Green Tea
Green teas from China have a grassy, earthy, roasted odor profile due to pan-firing (either once or multiple times, in a basket, pan, or drum over charcoal or gas flame, electric heat, or hot air). And those from Japan have a quite different sweet, vegetal, or seaweed-like aroma because of steaming.
White Tea
White tea, from China's Fujian province, is the least processed, neither rolled nor fired. The leaves, plucked when they first emerge and are still covered in fine white hairs, are allowed to wither and dry naturally in a carefully controlled environment, resulting in a tea with an extremely fresh, soft, and delicate scent. Sometimes the leaves are steamed very briefly or exposed to very low heat to help them dry more quickly and avoid oxidation. White tea was not available outside of its Chinese growing province until recently, when leaf processing and preserving methods improved greatly.
'Red' Tea
Red (rooibos, pronounced 'roy-buss') tea has existed as a product for only around 300 years. The plant is an herb (Aspalathus linearis) native to South Africa that is not actually a true C. sinensis tea plant. It is a legume plant that can be brewed into a reddish-brown infusion called 'African red tea' or 'red bush tea.' Oxidation brings out the full red color, as well as the scent and flavor. Rooibos evolved as an international commercial tea crop after the 1930s. In the late 1990s, a less-oxidized, green, and more grassy version was created, and in the 2000s a rooibos extract for perfumes was created. The scent of rooibos is smoky, sweet, woody, grassy, and floral.
Tea Fragrance
It is primarily through exposure to boiling water that tea's complex odor characteristics emerge, and it has been a challenge to the perfumer to simulate the tea experience without this essential preparation element being present. Tea-themed scents considerably. Sometimes components are derived from tea leaves themselves. In other compositions, raw materials are used instead to create an illusion of brewed tea: a few are floral absolutes that are reminiscent of tea, several are herbs and flowers used to brew tisanes and are described as possessing aromas similar that of tea, while others are notes of plants or flowers popularly associated with tea even though they are not actually 'tea-like.'
Fragrance essences that are extracted directly from tea leaves include the following:
Green tea absolute, a dark, sticky, semi-solid mass with an underlying sweet and slightly fruity apricot note and a dry, woody base. It has very low diffusiveness even with dilution in alcohol. It colors perfumes dark green.
Green tea CO2, with an appearance like Japanese matcha paste and a smell that is herbaceous and somewhat nutty, said by some to be the closest of the tea essences to nature. It is somewhat more diffusive. The extract dyes perfumes light green but leaves insoluble particles in alcohol.
Black tea absolute, with a scent even more diffuse and intense but still somewhat subtle. It is thick, resembling dark molasses.
Maté absolute, intense, bitter and reminiscent of hay, like its namesake tea beverage. It works well in fougere compositions.
Rooibos absolute, sweet and rich like pipe tobacco. It more often is made into a tincture that has a very subtle, faintly woody, slightly sweet aroma.
Yerba mate (Ilex paraguariensisis, in the holly genus) is not related to C. sinensis, but in perfumes it can recreate the effect of green tea, with a crystalline clarity and a soft and musky drydown. Also used sometimes to approximate or complement black tea in fragrances are smoky burnt rubber, birch tar, and caramel.
Notes that are used frequently to scent tea beverages and therefore are strongly associated with tea in perfumery include bergamot (a key ingredient in Earl Grey tea), jasmine sambac (green and fruity, used to perfume jasmine green tea), and lavender (also used in Earl Grey tea as well as being brewed as a tisane on its own). Toasted rice, often mixed with green tea as a drink called genmaicha, has a savory edge that has been paired with flowers in tea perfumes, adding depth to them. Closely associated with oolong tea is osmanthus fragrans, the Chinese olive plant flower. Rosewater, added to liquid tea since ancient Persia, is often combined with it in perfumes. Also added frequently are incense, sandalwood, cardamom, wisteria, lilac, and peony.
Unlike most other fragrant plants used in perfumery, tea leaves have a very subtle, faintly sweet, herbaceous, and green odor profile, without much diffusiveness. The overall quality of the natural aroma varies depending upon the type of tea, the region where it was grown, the growing conditions (the 'terroir'), when the leaves were plucked, and the subsequent processing (e.g. shaping, drying, cutting, and storage).
Japanese teas such as sencha and matcha have grassy, spinach-like scents, while oolongs share some aromatic notes with lilac, rose, and jasmine. Lapsang souchong has a smoky profile. Green tea fragrances frequently have added spices and herbs such as cardamom, nutmeg, and clary sage. Green tea scents in general are considered to be natural, refreshing, sweet, and elegant. The popularity of green tea declined in perfumery during the middle of the 20th century but then soared when much better technology for preservation developed in the 1980s and 1990s. In the later 1990s, with the increased focus on environmental issues and lifestyle diversity, the boom of 'naturalness' and health-consciousness (with its corresponding enthusiasm for Japanese food and drink), the use of green tea fragrance - like other light, transparent, relaxing, and refreshing ones, especially those considered unisex - became even more prevalent. The first synthetic green tea note was produced at the same time, and since then they have become diverse and more commonly used. In addition, a large series of perfumes with gourmand or fruity notes were released and gained acceptance in the 1990s. In this overall context, the scent of tea suddenly became extremely popular, with products like Bvlgari Eau Parfumée (1992), Elizabeth Arden Green Tea (1999), and Lancome Aroma Tonic (1999) appearing in rapid succession. Calvin Klein CK One (1994), a unisex fragrance with a prominent tea note, became a huge success first in Japan and then elsewhere, especially among the younger population. The green tea fragrance boom now appears to have waned since around 2006, although there is still a solid niche for the fragrances.
Masculine or Unisex Fragrances Featuring Tea:
4711 Acqua Colonia Green Tea & Bergamot, Lemon & Ginger (green)
Adolfo Dominguez Agua de Bambu
Alain Daniel French Club (male)
Alfred Dunhill Amalfi Citrus
Alkemia Thé de Ceylon, Apsara, Madam Pearl, Moroccan Tea, Beauty Like the Night (red)
Al-Rehab Green Tea
Altaia Yu Son
Annick Goutal Duel (yerbamate), Eau de Fier
l'Artisan Parfumeur Tea for Two (green), Dzongkha (masala chai), Coeur de Vetiver Sacre, 32 Venenum (masala chai, male)
Atelier Oolang Infini
Ayala Moriel Vetiver Rouge (red)
Azzaro Chrome United, Now (male), Aqua Cèdre Blanc
Bottega Verde Note per Due
Bvlgari Thé (various), Soir (male), Extrême, Omnia (masala chai), Pour Homme (Darjeeling)
By Kilian Bamboo Harmony, Imperial Tea
Calvin Klein One (green), Truth
Christopher Brosius (CB) I Hate Perfume Russian Caravan Tea (black)
Chrome Legend
Comme des Garcons Series 1 (black)
Coty Club Med My Ocean
Creed Silver Mountain Water, Asian Green Tea
Demeter Tea (various)
Derbe Te' Bianco, Te' Nero
Ebba L.A. White Tea
Ed Pnaud l'Impériale
Elizabeth Arden Green Tea, Untold
Emmanuel Levain Bleu
Esscentual Alchemy Gaia Botanical (red)
Fendi 2004
Floris Cefiro
Galimard Lotus Thé Vert, Rafting (male)
Gucci Pour Homme II (male)
Guerlain Homme, Aqua Allegoria Teazzurra (mint), Neroli Outrenoir
Hanae Mori HiM
Hermes Voyage, Eau de Citron Noir, Osmanthe Yunnan (Ooolong), l'Ombre des Merveilles
Hugo Boss Elements Aqua (male)
Issey Miyake Shades of Kolam
Jacques Evard Cyrus Edition Sport
Jacques Fath Yang
Jacomo Aura
Jaguar Classic Black
Jalaine Green Tea
Jean Charles Brosseau Thé Brun
Jo Malone Tea Collection (various, male)
Kenzo Tokyo
Korres White Tea Bergamot Freesia
Lacoste L.12.12. Rouge
Liz Claiborne Curve (various), Realities
Loewe Agua
Maison Margiela Tea Escape
Masque Russian Tea
Memo Paris Eau de Memo, Winter Palace, Oriental Leather
Monotheme Venezia Green Tea (male)
Murdock Black Tea (male)
Nadia Z Camino de Azahar (red, male)
Natura Hoje
Neil Morris Patchouli Narcisse
Nest Indigo
Nishane Wulong Cha
Nouvelle Etoile White Tea
l'Occitane Thé Bergamote, Thé Vert a la Menthe
Oliver & Co. Resina (red)
Ormonde Jayne Champaca (Genmaicha)
Panouge Perle Rare
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque Dalai Lama (male)
Pierre Bourdon le Grand Tour (male)
Provence Sante Green Tea
Ralph Lauren White Tea
Rance 1795 Collection Classique 2
Ravenscourt Vanilla Rooibos (red)
Regime des Fleurs Floralia (red)
Rituals Eau des Indes
Rocawear X
Roger & Gallet l'Homme Sport
Serge Lutens Five O'Clock Au Gingembre
Shanghai Tang Jade Dragon (male)
S. Oliver Prime League
Tom Ford White Suede
Unic Thé (various)
Urban Outfitters Thé Matcha (male)
Urban Scents Dark Vanilla (red)
Versace Dreamer
Viktor & Rolf Flowerbomb
Welton London Sencha
Xerjoff 1986
Yves Rocher Thé Vert
Zara Fig
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Fragrances by Occasion and Season
This post no doubt will elicit a wide variety of mental and emotional responses among men here, since the allocation of a particular fragrance to a specific occasion or season is subjective, and the approach itself is controversial. Many men just have one or two bottles of favorite colognes or aftershaves and wear them everywhere, feeling quite comfortable doing so. However, perfume experts generally suggest the use of specific types of scents for particular occasions or times of day and for one or more seasons of the year, so what I will try to do here is summarize the consensus or majority opinions and recommendations of knowledgeable writers.
First, given the atmosphere of a particular occasion, a scent can be chosen for an overall experience and impression based upon its major notes. Each fragrance has primary notes that give it a backbone structure, and most authorities say that there are basic classes from which the primary notes can be selected depending upon their scents, durations, and strengths.
Oriental notes are generally considered to be the heaviest, strongest, and longest lasting; these scents are usually composed of blends of musk, vanilla, and sandalwood. They are recommended most for evening wear and romantic occasions. Examples are Calvin Klein Obsession, Giorgio Armani Black Code, and Chanel Egoiste.
Floral perfumes, in contrast, are a sort of breath of fresh air, light and subtle, and sometimes flaunting youthfulness. They are appropriate for nearly any occasion if not overdone but are most suited to daytime, casual, and evening casual use. Floral scents are either composed of single primary flower (soliflore) or a bouquet of different flowers. Examples include Bvlgari BLV, Givenchy Insense, and Burberry Touch.
Green/Fresh scents, light, airy, clean, and comforting, smell more natural and are less sweet than florals. They usually have overtones of fresh-cut grass and tea tree oil and often contain some citrus and bergamot. Because they are very reminiscent of the outdoors, they are not as useful for formal indoor events, but are good for nearly all other environments, especially the office. Examples are Ralph Lauren Polo Blue, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio, Emanuel Ungaro Apparition, and Guy La Roche Drakkar Noir.
Woody perfumes are said to be even more natural than green ones and significantly more masculine in general than florals. They usually are moderately strong mixes of sandalwood, tobacco, vetiver, oakmoss, patchouli, bergamot, and smoke or other heavy notes, which makes them excellent for fall and winter months. They work best for casual, evening, or romantic times. Examples are Dolce & Gabbana By, Calvin Klein Truth, and Christian Dior Fahrenheit.
Warm/Spicy fragrances, often featuring amber, clove, cinnamon, and musk, are heavy and rich and usually worn when the weather is colder. The sometimes are not suitable for dinners because their strength can overpower the appetite.
Marine/Oceanic perfumes, with nuances of seaweed, salt, and sand, are light, natural, and relaxing, and they work best for vacation or the spa, although they can be worn pretty much anytime, especially in warm weather.
Fruity scents are fresh, fun, and rejuvenating. Sweet like florals, they have a lot of energy and are uplifting. They lend themselves to casual times, especially following more formal times such as work.
Among the writers, there is some consensus about the most versatile men's fragrances overall, ones useful for all occasions:
Amouage Reflection
Atelier Orange Sanguine
Chanel Bleu
Creed Silver Mountain Water
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Frederic Malle Vetiver Extraordinaire
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme
However, some experts and aficionados go further and recommend particular types of fragrances for certain individual activities or occasions.
Fragrances for Specific Activities or Times of Day
Work Scents
Writers generally suggest that a scent for the workplace should be natural, light, and subtle, yet sober and confident. Their implication is that your fragrance can play a role in impressing or offending your boss and perhaps can influence your chances of getting the office space or job you want, as well as affecting your popularity with colleagues. Most agree that a citrus, light floral, or earthy scent is a good choice; however, since these dissipate quickly, keeping a bottle or travel atomizer with you is recommended. Some suggest using a well-accepted classic, perhaps one with a crisp overall tone, but avoiding anything overpowering (including the highest-concentration parfums and EdPs, especially on hot days). And it is said that a long-lasting scent is a good idea if you are planning to spend a long and stressful day at work. Two fragrances commonly listed as good for work are Giorgio Armani pour Homme and Carolina Herrera 212.
(Board) Meeting/Interview Scents
Since first impressions can be a factor for business meetings, including board meetings, as well as for interviews, a classic, clean, somewhat subtle, gentlemanly fragrance is recommended, such as Dolce & Gabbana The One and variations of Bvlgari Man. Those with leather, basil, tonka bean, light musk, and cucumber tones, such as Givenchy Gentlemen Only Intense, Dolce & Gabbana pour Homme Intenso, or Kenneth Cole Mankind Ultimate, are other popular suggestions. Also recommended to suggest confidence in these settings are choices with ginger or sage, such as Nautica Life. And regardless of the composition, some writers suggest wearing a low-concentration eau fraiche, since it is the weakest (and therefore most subtle and best tolerated) of fragrance compositions for such occasions.
After Work Socializing
Getting together with colleagues after work, often seen as an essential part of one's job, can get to be a repetitive and boring experience if you wear the same fragrance that you wore for the office. Therefore, experts recommend switching your scent for the social environment, but still attempting to maintain an overall feeling of professionalism. One common suggestion is to choose something that is somewhat heady and distinctive but not overpowering, such as one featuring amber or ambergris, since it is not likely that someone else will wear something similar. An alternative suggestion is to select an aromatic 'modern classic' containing woods, such as Givenchy Gentleman. If the gathering spot is somewhat more formal, such as a country club, a good choice would be the nutmeg and saffron notes of Polo Supreme Leather Accord.
Date Night
If you want to leave a lingering favorable impression after a date, and because olfactory memory is the strongest type of memory, it is thought that choosing something unique - and something not likely to have been worn by an ex-boyfriend - is desirable. Unusual notes such as apple, blue fir, pomegranate, bamboo, and coconut are discussed, and there is general consensus that sweet, woody, spicy, or musky scents implying confidence are a good idea. Citruses and patchouli are relatively safe choices. However, it is recommended that you not go overboard with the strength or intoxication quality of your fragrance and that you limit the areas of application. Fragrances recommended include Penguin Original Blend, Dupont Paris by Night, Diptyque Oud Palao, and Christian Dior Homme. For a third or later date, a more 'aggressive' choice might include Michel Germain Séxual Paris, with its champagne and sandalwood notes, or the bergamot and vetiver nuances of Acqua di Parma Colonia Essenza.
A Dinner Party
For dinner parties, the challenge seems to lie in finding something strong enough to be noticed over the smells of the food and with persistence, but restrained enough to 'keep to itself.' The experts suggest using something with a heavy base such as oud or amber, with lighter top notes like vanilla, lavender, and rose that complement and dial it down somewhat. And if it is an small, intimate or romantic dinner, something with green mandarin and birch, like Givenchy Gentlemen Only, would be appropriate.
Nighttime/Clubbing
For socializing on cooler nights, gourmand and sultry scents such as honey, vanilla, or chocolate are suggested. If you are going to be with friends, a fragrance with nostalgic notes like coffee, cocoa, or vanilla can work well. If you will be dancing, then a scent with prominent and heavy base notes with good durability, is a popular choice. Consensus recommendations for this kind of environment include Dior Homme Intense, Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male, Joop!, Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Thierry Mugler A*Men, Gucci Guilty, and Yves St. Laurent Nuit de l'Homme. Recommended for a 'guys night out' is Montblanc Emblem, with grapefruit and wood notes.
Casual
For casual occasions, especially on weekends, scents that are relaxed and require little thought are suggested, and the experts agree that some of the tried and true classics work well. These include Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male, Hugo Boss Bottled, Old Spice, Ralph Lauren Polo Blue, or Paco Rabanne 1 Million. If your casual time includes vigorous sports, you might want to choose something with black pepper, juniper, cypress, or vetiver tones such as Vince Camuto Original or Michael Kors Extreme Blue.
Summer Socials/Weddings/Celebrations
For these relatively formal but upbeat gatherings, which frequently include outdoor time, it is recommended that you choose something that lasts well such as a higher-concentration parfum or eau de parfum. A selection with a tobacco base but with light, tropical, or sweet notes such as tonka bean, vanilla, lemon, jasmine, neroli, or orange blossom likely will work well. Suggestions include Versace Eros and Issey Miyake Nuit d'Issey.
Vacation
Generally the experts recommend choosing vacation fragrances based upon your destination, such as coconut, bergamot, and ambrox notes, in aquatic or marine compositions, for the beach. However, tones frequently recommended for the generally light and relaxed atmosphere of vacations, regardless of where you go, included florals, fruits, and citruses. A commonly recommended choice for the beach is Tommy Bahama Island Life.
Gifting
When you need to buy a fragrance for someone whose preferences you don't know, it is agreed that giving a classic and/or unisex scent is safe. Some also say that giving something relatively neutral, inclusive, and without the likelihood of 'emotional baggage,' is a good idea. Recommendations include Aramis for Men, Creed Green Irish Tweed, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio, and Hermes Terre d'Hermes.
Seasonal Fragrances
Some men, in addition to tailoring their fragrance use to particular activities, or instead of doing so, prefer to use certain compositions during specific seasons. Sometimes this is because the scents invoke happy or pleasant seasonal memories, but for some men it is simply because the accords seem to 'fit' well with other attributes or themes of the season. Any discussion of perfume seasons will be subjective, and in reading the following sections you will see that a number of fragrances are mentioned in the lists for more than one season, perhaps even in all. This simply implies that those particular compositions lend themselves to year-round use, and a man could just buy several of them and perhaps have all the scents that he needs.
Spring Fragrances
Spring is a time of freshness, greenness, blooming flowers, and a sense of rebirth, innocence, optimism, and happiness. Temperatures begin to rise, and moods seem to rise with them. Scents that enhance this feeling are fresh, light, sparkling, and crisp, frequently with notes like mint, basil, and orange blossom. They can be whimsical, almost humorous. They often have fresh aromatic, fruity, herbal, vegetal, or sweet floral accords with woody undertones, but they can vary quite a lot and are somewhat tricky to compare. Generally they are direct and relatively simple rather than deep or complex. Popular accords for spring blends include aquatics, citrus, ferns, greens, eaux de cologne, and floral aldehydes. Commonly used notes are almond, freesia, lilac, lily of the valley, iris, jasmine, white rose, lemon, and orange blossom. Some writers also suggest musk and pear for balance.
Men's fragrances often considered most suited to the spring season include the following:
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo (var.), esp. Cipresso di Toscana, Yuzu
AllSaints Sunset Riot
Annick Goutal Bois d'Hadrien
l'Artisan Parfumeur Mure et Musc Extreme
Bottega Veneta Illusione
Bvlgari Man Wood Essence
Burberry The Beat, Indigo
Byredo Mojave Ghost
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Everyone
Caron pour Homme
Cartier l'Envol
Chanel Bleu (var.), Allure Homme (var.)
Christian Dior Sauvage, Homme
Claus Porto Agua Flores
Creed Aventus, Green Irish Tweed, Millesime Imperial, Silver Mountain Water, Virgin Island Water
Davidoff Cool Water
Diptyque Paris
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue (var.)
Dunhill Arabian Desert, Icon Racing
Ellis Brooklyn Rives
Ermenegildo Zegna Acqua di Iris
Floris Vert Fougere
Francis Kurkdjian Gentle Fluidity
Giorgio Armani Code (var.), Diamonds, Acqua di Gio (var.)
Givenchy Gentlemen
Gucci Guilty (var.)
Hermes Terre d'Hermes, Un Jardin sur la Lagune, Voyage
Hugo Boss Bottled (var.)
Issey Miyake l'Eau Bleue
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male (var.)
Jimmy Choo Mana Blue
John Varvatos Artisan
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender, Whisky & Cedarwood, Grapefruit
Karl Lagerfeld
Krigler America One 31
Lacoste for Men
Maison Margiela Replica Sailing Day
Montblanc Explorer, Legend Spirit
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Penhaligon's Cousin Matthew
Prada l'Homme (var.), Luna Rossa
Ralph Lauren Polo Blue
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino, Costa Azzura Acqua, Tobacco Vanille, Oud Wood
Versace Man Eau Fraiche, Dylan Blue, Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb (var.)
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme, Y Man
Summer Fragrances
Since summer days tend to be warm or hot, the use of light, refreshing, and perhaps cooling scents is recommended, and the experts suggest that they be applied lightly, since smells are significantly stronger in higher temperatures. Summer is a time of relative freedom, and in perfumes for this season there is a sense of naturalness and 'anything goes.' The most frequently used scent family in summer compositions is fougere, but others used include floral (especially iris, violet, mimosa, jasmine, geranium, magnolia, freesia, and peony), herbal, aquatic, marine, gourmand (fruits), and citrus. Very common notes are orange blossom, apple, bergamot, mint, and light spices and herbs (such as lemon verbena and rosemary). A powdery tone is often included. Also frequently used, somewhat in contrast, are musk, woods, vetiver, patchouli, and leather, because according to the experts, men tend to use in the summertime the more masculine scents with which they are already familiar or are known for wearing.
Common men's summer fragrances:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct
Acqua di Parma Cipresso di Toscana, Blu Mediterraneo (var.), Colonia
Adidas Sport STRK
Aesop Tacit
Armaf Club Nuit Intense Man
Atelier Clementine California
Azzaro Chrome
Bottega Veneta Illusione
Brioni Brioni
Bvulgari Aqva (var.)
By Kilian Moonlight in Heaven
Byredo Sundazed
Calvin Klein Eternity (var.)
Chanel Allure Homme Sport, Bleu
Chris Collins Tokyo Blue
Christian Dior Homme (var.), Sauvage
Coach New York
Creed Aventus, Virgin Island Water
Davidoff Cool Water
DedCool Ivy Blanc
Diptyque Eau de Minthe
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue (var.)
Dunhill Arabian Desert
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength
Ex Nihilo Lust in Paradise
Ferrari Brigh Neroli
Floris London Bergamotto di Positano
Frederic Malle Vetiver Extraordinaire
Fueguia 1883 Agua de Gardenia
Giorgio Armani Code Absolut, Acqua di Gio
Gucci Guilty
Hermes Un Jardin sur la Lagune, Terre d'Hermes
Hugo Boss Bottled Infinite, Scent Intense
Issey Miyake Eau Super Majeure, Eau d'Issey pour Homme
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male Eau Fraiche Popeye
John Varvatos Artisan Blu
Jo Malone London Huntsman Birch & Black Pepper
Kenzo pour Homme
Lacoste L.12.L.12 (var.)
Lanvin Eclat d'Arpege pour Homme
Le Labo Tonka 25, Bergamote 22
Louis Vuitton Sun Song
Malin & Goetz Cannabis
Memo Paris Moroccan Leather
Missoni pour Homme
Montblanc Explorer, Individuel
Moschino Toy Boy
Nautica Voyage
Paco Rabanne Invictus (var.)
Penhaligon's Juniper Sling
Prada l'Homme Prada Water Splash
Ralph Lauren Polo Blue
Salvatore Ferragamo Uomo Urban Feel
Shawn Crenshaw Ovation
Thierry Mugler A*Men Ultra Zest
Tom Ford Costa Azzurra Acqua, Lavender Extreme, Neroli Portofino, Mandarino di Amalfi
Tommy Bahama Maritime Journey
Versace Man (var.), Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb (var.)
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Ultime
Autumn Fragrances
With fall the temperatures cool, and life's tempo seems to slow. At this time the more tranquil, earthy, and warm base note accords, such as the woods, become the best choice. Oriental incense and spices are also common. Others that are popular include musk, oud, balsams, patchouli, tobacco, vetiver, amber, and oakmoss. Vanilla, honey, or caramel are sometimes added for balance. At this time, since scents don't carry as well in the air, it is appropriate to wear rich, headier, more robust blends that conjure a sense of warmth and imply the brown, orange, and red colors of leaves. Floral and sweet scents are much less often used. Autumn compositions generally tend to be based upon natural botanicals rather than the 'cold' synthetics. Because these autumn notes can seem harsh when used alone or too 'loudly,' they frequently are employed in deeper, more complex mixes. Tones that are added for additional depth and duration include blackberry, pear, cardamom, cognac, fig, guaiacwood, hay, myrrh, and ylang-ylang.
Men's fall fragrances named most often by the experts include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Futura
AllSaints Leather Skies
Azzaro Wanted (var.)
Bentley for Men Intense
Bottega Veneta pour Homme
Bvlgari Man in Black
Burberry Touch
Carolina Herrera Men Prive
Cartier l'Envol
Chanel Bleu, Egoiste
Christian Dior Fahrenheit, Ambre Nuit
Creed Original Santal, Royal Oud, Tabarome Millesime
Czech & Speake Perfecto Fino
Dolce & Gabbana The One
D.S. & Durga Mississippi Medicine
Dunhill Icon
Floris 71/72
Francis Kurkdjian l'Homme a la Rose
Giorgio Armani Because It's You, Stronger with You
Givenchy Gentleman
Gucci pour Homme
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal, Habit Rouge
Hermes Terre d'Hermes
Hugo Boss Bottled (var.), The Scent
Issey Miyake Nuit d'Issey
Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male
John Varvatos Vintage
Jo Malone English Oak & Hazelnut
Laboratory Perfumes Amber
Le Labo Another 13
Marly Godolphin
Mercedes Benz Man
Molton Brown Black Pepper
l'Occitane pour Homme
Paco Rabanne 1 Million
Penhaligon's Halfeti Leather
Prada Luna Rossa Black
Roja Fetish pour Homme
Salvatore Ferragamo Black #5
Tom Ford Ombre Leather, Tuscan Leather, Oud Fleur
Valentino Uomo
Versace Eros
Yves St. Laurent Beaute Nuit Cuir, La Nuit de l'Homme, Y Man
Winter Fragrances
According to the authorities, winter is the favorite season for perfumers because the cold temperatures give delicate and sophisticated notes the necessary time to be fully expressed. Because winter tends to lack bright colors and vigorous activities, balancing fragrance tones can be strong, dark, heavy, and exotic, with one's olfactory sense not distracted by other outside smells. Bold complex blends that can cut through cold air and last longer are popular. Families typically included in winter compositions are chypres, gourmands, orientals, and woods. The most commonly used notes are vanilla, cinnamon and other spices (e.g. saffron, cardamom, and clove), incense, and amber, followed closely by musk, leather, tobacco, patchouli, and cedarwood. However, also noted as being popular by some writers are gourmand accords, heady white flowers, and other sweet aromas that would be more annoying in the summertime. Scents that are avoided for the most part in winter fragrances are the typical fresh citrus and aquatic accords, partially because they become 'transparent' (unsmelled) in cold weather.
Among men's winter fragrances are the following:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Pura, Colonia Sandalo
Allsaints Leather Skies
Amouage Epic
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense
Arquiste Nanban
Azzaro Wanted (var.)
Burberry London
Bvlgari Man in Black
By Kilian Black Phantom
Byredo Eleventh Hour
Calvin Klein One Shock
Carolina Herrera Men Prive
Chanel Bleu
Christian Dior Homme Intense, Fahrenheit
Comme des Garcon Wonderoud
Creed Royal Oud, Aventus
DedCool Fragrance 05
Diptyque Tempo
Dolce & Gabbana The One
D.S. & Durga Amber Teutonic
Dunhill London Century
Etat Libre d'Orange Exit the King
Francis Kurkdjian Grand Soir
Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur
Giorgio Armani Code (var.), Absolu, Stronger with You, Acqua di Gio Absolu
Gucci pour Homme
Guerlain Habit Rouge, l'Homme Ideal
Hermes Terre d'Hermes Eau Intense Vetiver
Histoires de Parfums 1828
Hugo Boss Bottled
Issey Miyake Pulse of the Night
Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male
Jimmy Choo Man
John Varvatos x Nick Jonas LE
Joop!
Kenneth Cole Black
Krigler Abrakaadabra 221
La Yuqawam Tobacco Blaze
Le Labo Tonka 25
Louis Vuitton Orage
Marly Carlisle
Margiela Jazz Club
Michael Kors
Paco Rabanne Invictus, 1 Million (var.)
Prada l'Homme Intense
Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Oud
Replica Jazz Club
Thierry Mugler A*Men (var.)
Tom Ford Noir (var.), Oud Wood Intense, Oud Minerale, Tobacco Vanille, Ombre Leather
Valentino Noir Absolu Oud Essence, Uomo (var.)
Versace Eros, Oud Noir
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb (var.)
Vince Camuto Virtu
Yves St. Laurent La Nuit de l'Homme
This post no doubt will elicit a wide variety of mental and emotional responses among men here, since the allocation of a particular fragrance to a specific occasion or season is subjective, and the approach itself is controversial. Many men just have one or two bottles of favorite colognes or aftershaves and wear them everywhere, feeling quite comfortable doing so. However, perfume experts generally suggest the use of specific types of scents for particular occasions or times of day and for one or more seasons of the year, so what I will try to do here is summarize the consensus or majority opinions and recommendations of knowledgeable writers.
First, given the atmosphere of a particular occasion, a scent can be chosen for an overall experience and impression based upon its major notes. Each fragrance has primary notes that give it a backbone structure, and most authorities say that there are basic classes from which the primary notes can be selected depending upon their scents, durations, and strengths.
Oriental notes are generally considered to be the heaviest, strongest, and longest lasting; these scents are usually composed of blends of musk, vanilla, and sandalwood. They are recommended most for evening wear and romantic occasions. Examples are Calvin Klein Obsession, Giorgio Armani Black Code, and Chanel Egoiste.
Floral perfumes, in contrast, are a sort of breath of fresh air, light and subtle, and sometimes flaunting youthfulness. They are appropriate for nearly any occasion if not overdone but are most suited to daytime, casual, and evening casual use. Floral scents are either composed of single primary flower (soliflore) or a bouquet of different flowers. Examples include Bvlgari BLV, Givenchy Insense, and Burberry Touch.
Green/Fresh scents, light, airy, clean, and comforting, smell more natural and are less sweet than florals. They usually have overtones of fresh-cut grass and tea tree oil and often contain some citrus and bergamot. Because they are very reminiscent of the outdoors, they are not as useful for formal indoor events, but are good for nearly all other environments, especially the office. Examples are Ralph Lauren Polo Blue, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio, Emanuel Ungaro Apparition, and Guy La Roche Drakkar Noir.
Woody perfumes are said to be even more natural than green ones and significantly more masculine in general than florals. They usually are moderately strong mixes of sandalwood, tobacco, vetiver, oakmoss, patchouli, bergamot, and smoke or other heavy notes, which makes them excellent for fall and winter months. They work best for casual, evening, or romantic times. Examples are Dolce & Gabbana By, Calvin Klein Truth, and Christian Dior Fahrenheit.
Warm/Spicy fragrances, often featuring amber, clove, cinnamon, and musk, are heavy and rich and usually worn when the weather is colder. The sometimes are not suitable for dinners because their strength can overpower the appetite.
Marine/Oceanic perfumes, with nuances of seaweed, salt, and sand, are light, natural, and relaxing, and they work best for vacation or the spa, although they can be worn pretty much anytime, especially in warm weather.
Fruity scents are fresh, fun, and rejuvenating. Sweet like florals, they have a lot of energy and are uplifting. They lend themselves to casual times, especially following more formal times such as work.
Among the writers, there is some consensus about the most versatile men's fragrances overall, ones useful for all occasions:
Amouage Reflection
Atelier Orange Sanguine
Chanel Bleu
Creed Silver Mountain Water
Dior Sauvage
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Frederic Malle Vetiver Extraordinaire
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme
However, some experts and aficionados go further and recommend particular types of fragrances for certain individual activities or occasions.
Fragrances for Specific Activities or Times of Day
Work Scents
Writers generally suggest that a scent for the workplace should be natural, light, and subtle, yet sober and confident. Their implication is that your fragrance can play a role in impressing or offending your boss and perhaps can influence your chances of getting the office space or job you want, as well as affecting your popularity with colleagues. Most agree that a citrus, light floral, or earthy scent is a good choice; however, since these dissipate quickly, keeping a bottle or travel atomizer with you is recommended. Some suggest using a well-accepted classic, perhaps one with a crisp overall tone, but avoiding anything overpowering (including the highest-concentration parfums and EdPs, especially on hot days). And it is said that a long-lasting scent is a good idea if you are planning to spend a long and stressful day at work. Two fragrances commonly listed as good for work are Giorgio Armani pour Homme and Carolina Herrera 212.
(Board) Meeting/Interview Scents
Since first impressions can be a factor for business meetings, including board meetings, as well as for interviews, a classic, clean, somewhat subtle, gentlemanly fragrance is recommended, such as Dolce & Gabbana The One and variations of Bvlgari Man. Those with leather, basil, tonka bean, light musk, and cucumber tones, such as Givenchy Gentlemen Only Intense, Dolce & Gabbana pour Homme Intenso, or Kenneth Cole Mankind Ultimate, are other popular suggestions. Also recommended to suggest confidence in these settings are choices with ginger or sage, such as Nautica Life. And regardless of the composition, some writers suggest wearing a low-concentration eau fraiche, since it is the weakest (and therefore most subtle and best tolerated) of fragrance compositions for such occasions.
After Work Socializing
Getting together with colleagues after work, often seen as an essential part of one's job, can get to be a repetitive and boring experience if you wear the same fragrance that you wore for the office. Therefore, experts recommend switching your scent for the social environment, but still attempting to maintain an overall feeling of professionalism. One common suggestion is to choose something that is somewhat heady and distinctive but not overpowering, such as one featuring amber or ambergris, since it is not likely that someone else will wear something similar. An alternative suggestion is to select an aromatic 'modern classic' containing woods, such as Givenchy Gentleman. If the gathering spot is somewhat more formal, such as a country club, a good choice would be the nutmeg and saffron notes of Polo Supreme Leather Accord.
Date Night
If you want to leave a lingering favorable impression after a date, and because olfactory memory is the strongest type of memory, it is thought that choosing something unique - and something not likely to have been worn by an ex-boyfriend - is desirable. Unusual notes such as apple, blue fir, pomegranate, bamboo, and coconut are discussed, and there is general consensus that sweet, woody, spicy, or musky scents implying confidence are a good idea. Citruses and patchouli are relatively safe choices. However, it is recommended that you not go overboard with the strength or intoxication quality of your fragrance and that you limit the areas of application. Fragrances recommended include Penguin Original Blend, Dupont Paris by Night, Diptyque Oud Palao, and Christian Dior Homme. For a third or later date, a more 'aggressive' choice might include Michel Germain Séxual Paris, with its champagne and sandalwood notes, or the bergamot and vetiver nuances of Acqua di Parma Colonia Essenza.
A Dinner Party
For dinner parties, the challenge seems to lie in finding something strong enough to be noticed over the smells of the food and with persistence, but restrained enough to 'keep to itself.' The experts suggest using something with a heavy base such as oud or amber, with lighter top notes like vanilla, lavender, and rose that complement and dial it down somewhat. And if it is an small, intimate or romantic dinner, something with green mandarin and birch, like Givenchy Gentlemen Only, would be appropriate.
Nighttime/Clubbing
For socializing on cooler nights, gourmand and sultry scents such as honey, vanilla, or chocolate are suggested. If you are going to be with friends, a fragrance with nostalgic notes like coffee, cocoa, or vanilla can work well. If you will be dancing, then a scent with prominent and heavy base notes with good durability, is a popular choice. Consensus recommendations for this kind of environment include Dior Homme Intense, Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male, Joop!, Paco Rabanne 1 Million, Thierry Mugler A*Men, Gucci Guilty, and Yves St. Laurent Nuit de l'Homme. Recommended for a 'guys night out' is Montblanc Emblem, with grapefruit and wood notes.
Casual
For casual occasions, especially on weekends, scents that are relaxed and require little thought are suggested, and the experts agree that some of the tried and true classics work well. These include Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male, Hugo Boss Bottled, Old Spice, Ralph Lauren Polo Blue, or Paco Rabanne 1 Million. If your casual time includes vigorous sports, you might want to choose something with black pepper, juniper, cypress, or vetiver tones such as Vince Camuto Original or Michael Kors Extreme Blue.
Summer Socials/Weddings/Celebrations
For these relatively formal but upbeat gatherings, which frequently include outdoor time, it is recommended that you choose something that lasts well such as a higher-concentration parfum or eau de parfum. A selection with a tobacco base but with light, tropical, or sweet notes such as tonka bean, vanilla, lemon, jasmine, neroli, or orange blossom likely will work well. Suggestions include Versace Eros and Issey Miyake Nuit d'Issey.
Vacation
Generally the experts recommend choosing vacation fragrances based upon your destination, such as coconut, bergamot, and ambrox notes, in aquatic or marine compositions, for the beach. However, tones frequently recommended for the generally light and relaxed atmosphere of vacations, regardless of where you go, included florals, fruits, and citruses. A commonly recommended choice for the beach is Tommy Bahama Island Life.
Gifting
When you need to buy a fragrance for someone whose preferences you don't know, it is agreed that giving a classic and/or unisex scent is safe. Some also say that giving something relatively neutral, inclusive, and without the likelihood of 'emotional baggage,' is a good idea. Recommendations include Aramis for Men, Creed Green Irish Tweed, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio, and Hermes Terre d'Hermes.
Seasonal Fragrances
Some men, in addition to tailoring their fragrance use to particular activities, or instead of doing so, prefer to use certain compositions during specific seasons. Sometimes this is because the scents invoke happy or pleasant seasonal memories, but for some men it is simply because the accords seem to 'fit' well with other attributes or themes of the season. Any discussion of perfume seasons will be subjective, and in reading the following sections you will see that a number of fragrances are mentioned in the lists for more than one season, perhaps even in all. This simply implies that those particular compositions lend themselves to year-round use, and a man could just buy several of them and perhaps have all the scents that he needs.
Spring Fragrances
Spring is a time of freshness, greenness, blooming flowers, and a sense of rebirth, innocence, optimism, and happiness. Temperatures begin to rise, and moods seem to rise with them. Scents that enhance this feeling are fresh, light, sparkling, and crisp, frequently with notes like mint, basil, and orange blossom. They can be whimsical, almost humorous. They often have fresh aromatic, fruity, herbal, vegetal, or sweet floral accords with woody undertones, but they can vary quite a lot and are somewhat tricky to compare. Generally they are direct and relatively simple rather than deep or complex. Popular accords for spring blends include aquatics, citrus, ferns, greens, eaux de cologne, and floral aldehydes. Commonly used notes are almond, freesia, lilac, lily of the valley, iris, jasmine, white rose, lemon, and orange blossom. Some writers also suggest musk and pear for balance.
Men's fragrances often considered most suited to the spring season include the following:
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo (var.), esp. Cipresso di Toscana, Yuzu
AllSaints Sunset Riot
Annick Goutal Bois d'Hadrien
l'Artisan Parfumeur Mure et Musc Extreme
Bottega Veneta Illusione
Bvlgari Man Wood Essence
Burberry The Beat, Indigo
Byredo Mojave Ghost
Calvin Klein Eternity Flame, Everyone
Caron pour Homme
Cartier l'Envol
Chanel Bleu (var.), Allure Homme (var.)
Christian Dior Sauvage, Homme
Claus Porto Agua Flores
Creed Aventus, Green Irish Tweed, Millesime Imperial, Silver Mountain Water, Virgin Island Water
Davidoff Cool Water
Diptyque Paris
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue (var.)
Dunhill Arabian Desert, Icon Racing
Ellis Brooklyn Rives
Ermenegildo Zegna Acqua di Iris
Floris Vert Fougere
Francis Kurkdjian Gentle Fluidity
Giorgio Armani Code (var.), Diamonds, Acqua di Gio (var.)
Givenchy Gentlemen
Gucci Guilty (var.)
Hermes Terre d'Hermes, Un Jardin sur la Lagune, Voyage
Hugo Boss Bottled (var.)
Issey Miyake l'Eau Bleue
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male (var.)
Jimmy Choo Mana Blue
John Varvatos Artisan
Jo Malone Amber & Lavender, Whisky & Cedarwood, Grapefruit
Karl Lagerfeld
Krigler America One 31
Lacoste for Men
Maison Margiela Replica Sailing Day
Montblanc Explorer, Legend Spirit
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Penhaligon's Cousin Matthew
Prada l'Homme (var.), Luna Rossa
Ralph Lauren Polo Blue
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino, Costa Azzura Acqua, Tobacco Vanille, Oud Wood
Versace Man Eau Fraiche, Dylan Blue, Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb (var.)
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme, Y Man
Summer Fragrances
Since summer days tend to be warm or hot, the use of light, refreshing, and perhaps cooling scents is recommended, and the experts suggest that they be applied lightly, since smells are significantly stronger in higher temperatures. Summer is a time of relative freedom, and in perfumes for this season there is a sense of naturalness and 'anything goes.' The most frequently used scent family in summer compositions is fougere, but others used include floral (especially iris, violet, mimosa, jasmine, geranium, magnolia, freesia, and peony), herbal, aquatic, marine, gourmand (fruits), and citrus. Very common notes are orange blossom, apple, bergamot, mint, and light spices and herbs (such as lemon verbena and rosemary). A powdery tone is often included. Also frequently used, somewhat in contrast, are musk, woods, vetiver, patchouli, and leather, because according to the experts, men tend to use in the summertime the more masculine scents with which they are already familiar or are known for wearing.
Common men's summer fragrances:
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct
Acqua di Parma Cipresso di Toscana, Blu Mediterraneo (var.), Colonia
Adidas Sport STRK
Aesop Tacit
Armaf Club Nuit Intense Man
Atelier Clementine California
Azzaro Chrome
Bottega Veneta Illusione
Brioni Brioni
Bvulgari Aqva (var.)
By Kilian Moonlight in Heaven
Byredo Sundazed
Calvin Klein Eternity (var.)
Chanel Allure Homme Sport, Bleu
Chris Collins Tokyo Blue
Christian Dior Homme (var.), Sauvage
Coach New York
Creed Aventus, Virgin Island Water
Davidoff Cool Water
DedCool Ivy Blanc
Diptyque Eau de Minthe
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue (var.)
Dunhill Arabian Desert
Ermenegildo Zegna Strength
Ex Nihilo Lust in Paradise
Ferrari Brigh Neroli
Floris London Bergamotto di Positano
Frederic Malle Vetiver Extraordinaire
Fueguia 1883 Agua de Gardenia
Giorgio Armani Code Absolut, Acqua di Gio
Gucci Guilty
Hermes Un Jardin sur la Lagune, Terre d'Hermes
Hugo Boss Bottled Infinite, Scent Intense
Issey Miyake Eau Super Majeure, Eau d'Issey pour Homme
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male Eau Fraiche Popeye
John Varvatos Artisan Blu
Jo Malone London Huntsman Birch & Black Pepper
Kenzo pour Homme
Lacoste L.12.L.12 (var.)
Lanvin Eclat d'Arpege pour Homme
Le Labo Tonka 25, Bergamote 22
Louis Vuitton Sun Song
Malin & Goetz Cannabis
Memo Paris Moroccan Leather
Missoni pour Homme
Montblanc Explorer, Individuel
Moschino Toy Boy
Nautica Voyage
Paco Rabanne Invictus (var.)
Penhaligon's Juniper Sling
Prada l'Homme Prada Water Splash
Ralph Lauren Polo Blue
Salvatore Ferragamo Uomo Urban Feel
Shawn Crenshaw Ovation
Thierry Mugler A*Men Ultra Zest
Tom Ford Costa Azzurra Acqua, Lavender Extreme, Neroli Portofino, Mandarino di Amalfi
Tommy Bahama Maritime Journey
Versace Man (var.), Eros
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb (var.)
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Ultime
Autumn Fragrances
With fall the temperatures cool, and life's tempo seems to slow. At this time the more tranquil, earthy, and warm base note accords, such as the woods, become the best choice. Oriental incense and spices are also common. Others that are popular include musk, oud, balsams, patchouli, tobacco, vetiver, amber, and oakmoss. Vanilla, honey, or caramel are sometimes added for balance. At this time, since scents don't carry as well in the air, it is appropriate to wear rich, headier, more robust blends that conjure a sense of warmth and imply the brown, orange, and red colors of leaves. Floral and sweet scents are much less often used. Autumn compositions generally tend to be based upon natural botanicals rather than the 'cold' synthetics. Because these autumn notes can seem harsh when used alone or too 'loudly,' they frequently are employed in deeper, more complex mixes. Tones that are added for additional depth and duration include blackberry, pear, cardamom, cognac, fig, guaiacwood, hay, myrrh, and ylang-ylang.
Men's fall fragrances named most often by the experts include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Futura
AllSaints Leather Skies
Azzaro Wanted (var.)
Bentley for Men Intense
Bottega Veneta pour Homme
Bvlgari Man in Black
Burberry Touch
Carolina Herrera Men Prive
Cartier l'Envol
Chanel Bleu, Egoiste
Christian Dior Fahrenheit, Ambre Nuit
Creed Original Santal, Royal Oud, Tabarome Millesime
Czech & Speake Perfecto Fino
Dolce & Gabbana The One
D.S. & Durga Mississippi Medicine
Dunhill Icon
Floris 71/72
Francis Kurkdjian l'Homme a la Rose
Giorgio Armani Because It's You, Stronger with You
Givenchy Gentleman
Gucci pour Homme
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal, Habit Rouge
Hermes Terre d'Hermes
Hugo Boss Bottled (var.), The Scent
Issey Miyake Nuit d'Issey
Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male
John Varvatos Vintage
Jo Malone English Oak & Hazelnut
Laboratory Perfumes Amber
Le Labo Another 13
Marly Godolphin
Mercedes Benz Man
Molton Brown Black Pepper
l'Occitane pour Homme
Paco Rabanne 1 Million
Penhaligon's Halfeti Leather
Prada Luna Rossa Black
Roja Fetish pour Homme
Salvatore Ferragamo Black #5
Tom Ford Ombre Leather, Tuscan Leather, Oud Fleur
Valentino Uomo
Versace Eros
Yves St. Laurent Beaute Nuit Cuir, La Nuit de l'Homme, Y Man
Winter Fragrances
According to the authorities, winter is the favorite season for perfumers because the cold temperatures give delicate and sophisticated notes the necessary time to be fully expressed. Because winter tends to lack bright colors and vigorous activities, balancing fragrance tones can be strong, dark, heavy, and exotic, with one's olfactory sense not distracted by other outside smells. Bold complex blends that can cut through cold air and last longer are popular. Families typically included in winter compositions are chypres, gourmands, orientals, and woods. The most commonly used notes are vanilla, cinnamon and other spices (e.g. saffron, cardamom, and clove), incense, and amber, followed closely by musk, leather, tobacco, patchouli, and cedarwood. However, also noted as being popular by some writers are gourmand accords, heady white flowers, and other sweet aromas that would be more annoying in the summertime. Scents that are avoided for the most part in winter fragrances are the typical fresh citrus and aquatic accords, partially because they become 'transparent' (unsmelled) in cold weather.
Among men's winter fragrances are the following:
Acqua di Parma Colonia Pura, Colonia Sandalo
Allsaints Leather Skies
Amouage Epic
Armaf Club de Nuit Intense
Arquiste Nanban
Azzaro Wanted (var.)
Burberry London
Bvlgari Man in Black
By Kilian Black Phantom
Byredo Eleventh Hour
Calvin Klein One Shock
Carolina Herrera Men Prive
Chanel Bleu
Christian Dior Homme Intense, Fahrenheit
Comme des Garcon Wonderoud
Creed Royal Oud, Aventus
DedCool Fragrance 05
Diptyque Tempo
Dolce & Gabbana The One
D.S. & Durga Amber Teutonic
Dunhill London Century
Etat Libre d'Orange Exit the King
Francis Kurkdjian Grand Soir
Frederic Malle Musc Ravageur
Giorgio Armani Code (var.), Absolu, Stronger with You, Acqua di Gio Absolu
Gucci pour Homme
Guerlain Habit Rouge, l'Homme Ideal
Hermes Terre d'Hermes Eau Intense Vetiver
Histoires de Parfums 1828
Hugo Boss Bottled
Issey Miyake Pulse of the Night
Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male
Jimmy Choo Man
John Varvatos x Nick Jonas LE
Joop!
Kenneth Cole Black
Krigler Abrakaadabra 221
La Yuqawam Tobacco Blaze
Le Labo Tonka 25
Louis Vuitton Orage
Marly Carlisle
Margiela Jazz Club
Michael Kors
Paco Rabanne Invictus, 1 Million (var.)
Prada l'Homme Intense
Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Oud
Replica Jazz Club
Thierry Mugler A*Men (var.)
Tom Ford Noir (var.), Oud Wood Intense, Oud Minerale, Tobacco Vanille, Ombre Leather
Valentino Noir Absolu Oud Essence, Uomo (var.)
Versace Eros, Oud Noir
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb (var.)
Vince Camuto Virtu
Yves St. Laurent La Nuit de l'Homme
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Linden
The Tilia genus, somewhat confusingly called 'lime, 'linden,' or 'basswood,' includes about 30 species of trees and bushes that are native to Europe and Asia and are now found throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere, with the largest number of species in Asia. They actually are not related to the tree that produces the citrus lime fruit. The plants are mostly large deciduous trees, reaching 20-40m in height. Cultivated lindens sometimes are repeatedly chopped down, forcing the stump to regrow (coppicing) shoots or 'poles' that gradually increase the size of the stump to quite a large diameter.
A tree begins flowering at about 15 years of age and continues throughout its life. It has heart-shaped leaves and small yellow or white blossoms that typically bloom from late June through mid-July in Europe and North America. The flowers fade quickly, and they only have peak fragrance (and aromatic oils) for a few days.
Trees typically live for 150-350 years; in Europe, some linden trees have reached greater ages, sometimes up to 600 years or more, with one at the Imperial Castle of Nuremburg thought to be 1,000 years old and one in Gloucestershire estimated to be 2,000 years old.
Linden fossils, found from Europe to Siberia, have been dated to over 70 million years old. After the last ice age, littleleaf lindens dominated the woodlands of large parts of Europe. Archeologists have excavated linden tree dugout boats across much of central Europe, some dating to more than 7,000 years ago. There is evidence of the tree being planted and used for community social purposes there as early as the mid-8th century.
The name 'lime' is an altered form of Old and Middle English 'lind' or 'linde,' from the Latin 'lentus' (flexible). 'Linden' originally was an adjective ('made from linwood or lime-wood,' equivalent to 'wooden'), then by the 16th century it became a noun from the plural of German 'linde.' The tree is called lipa in all Slavic languages.
Linden in Perfumery
For perfumery, the fresh flowers are typically dehydrated and dried at low heat in large dehydrator machines, but in some places they are spread out traditionally on screens and allowed to dry in large open rooms, with fans for air circulation.
Linden absolute is solvent-extracted from the dried flower and attached leaf of the late-blooming small-leafed 'winter linden' (Tilia cordata, meaning 'heart-shaped'), the early broad-leafed 'summer lime' (Tilia platyphyllos), or one of the very common hybrids. The absolute is a thick, sticky, dark green, semi-solid mass. It is hard to use and must be diluted significantly in alcohol for use in perfume products. Linden is found most often in chypre and fougere compositions. The odor profile, resembling the smell of the blooming trees, is a bright yellow floral, with honey top aspects and herbaceous, grass-like or hay-like green undertone nuances. Its overall syrupy, sweet floral tone is similar to honeysuckle and is somewhat wine-like, but with some earthy tartness like a green lime. It is light, airy, sunny, and warm, a calming and comforting scent that lends itself especially to springtime compositions. The notes from early-blooming flowers tend to be more energetic, exhilarating and narcotic, while those from later-blooming ones are warmer and more honey-like.
By itself, linden can verge into being too cloying or powdery, so it needs to be balanced by deeper or smoother notes. Soft and subtle, it helps to balance sweeter florals such as jasmine, violet, rose, iris, and tuberose, and it adds mellowness to green, citrus, and herbal accords like orange blossom, neroli, grapefruit, lemon, basil, chamomile, ylang ylang, and vetiver. It also blends quite well with musk, vanilla, benzoin, and sandalwood. It is especially useful as a brightener in clean and sophisticated masculine blends. Used correctly as a top or middle note, it often is reminiscent of being outdoors in a park on a sunny late spring day.
The principal aromatic constituent of linden is farnesol. The authentic natural linden smell is rarely found in perfumery, since the very similar synthetic farnesol is significantly cheaper than the blossom absolute, and the majority of perfumes with the natural form are no longer even produced or they have been reformulated. Linden flower soliflores are not nearly as popular as other soliflores, and there are very few of them offered. However, true linden blossom fragrances are still created by a slowly growing group of Russian artisan perfumers. In perfumery and tea labeling, linden is sometimes known as 'tilleul.'
There is also a clear, transparent, less common CO2 extract with a scent that has intense honey notes; it is lighter and sunnier but sweeter and less green than the absolute. This extract is difficult to obtain but is actually easier to use, and active research is underway to improve and accelerate the extraction process, which should allow production of a wider range of true linden perfume compositions.
Other Uses
Linden trees are important plants for beekeepers, producing a very pale but richly flavored honey. Two mature linden trees can have enough flowers to produce nectar equal to that of an acre of sweet clover; a single acre of mature cultivated lindens make adequate nectar for over 1,000 pounds of honey. The flowers are also used widely, in many cultures, for herbal teas and tinctures. In addition, the flowers, raw leaf buds, and young leaves are edible and are sometimes used in salads.
The flowers, leaves, wood, and charcoal have been employed for medicinal purposes for centuries, primarily as a diaphoretic but also for treatment of colds, fever, infections, inflammation, high blood pressure, edema, headache, muscle spasms, anxiety, and liver and gallbladder disorders. In Germany, linden is included in modern common cold and antitussive preparations and in urological and sedative drugs, as well as in a tea used to treat pediatric influenza. Animal studies display binding to benzodiazepine receptors, and linden flavonoids are anxiolytic and sedating in mice. Research has suggested immunostimulatory and immunomodulatory activities of linden, with possible effects against tumors, but so far there have been no clinical studies showing chemotherapeutic benefit against cancer. Modern studies have shown Tilia extract to have in vitro antibacterial and antifungal activity, and current research is investigating its possible antiseptic use. Linden extract is often used in hair and scalp care products and in bath salts and creams to hydrate and soothe irritated skin.
Linden wood was used by ancient Vikings and Germanic tribes for constructing shields. The trees produce soft and easily worked timber with very little grain, making it popular for model-making, puppet-making, and intricate carving since the Middle Ages, especially in Germany and England. It is not clear how linden trees first spread to North American, but there is evidence that they were used for a variety of purposes by Native Americans. Starting in the 17th century, lindens began to be planted decoratively in public squares and along streets in Europe, and in the 17th and 18th centuries the timber played an important role in European city architecture. Ease of working and sanding the wood, and its resistance to warping and good acoustic properties, have made it useful for guitar bodies, wind instruments such as recorders, drum shells, and piano keys. It has also been a choice material for window blinds and shutters because it is lightweight but strong and suited to many finishes. The inner fibrous bark of the tree, known as 'bast' or basswood, was used for making cordage and for weaving of clothing by the Ainu people of Japan and by Britons during the Bronze Age.
Cultural Aspects
The masks of sarcophagi from the Hellenistic period in Egypt (c.323 BC-32 BC) were carved from linden wood. Lindens and their virtues are mentioned frequently in Greek mythology by Homer, Horace, Virgil, and Pliny. The linden is symbolic in German pre-Christian mythology, and local communities there traditionally assembled for community celebrations and judicial meetings under the trees. They believed that lightning would not strike the holy linden tree, so it often was planted close to churches and houses to bring luck. It also was used for carving sacred figures of saints in the Middle Ages and was called 'lignum sacrum' (sacred wood). In German folklore, the linden is the tree of truth and of lovers; it was believed that one could not tell a lie under the tree, and having a linden nearby was thought to bring fertility and prosperity.
Linden perfume products generally considered to be masculine include:
Adolfo Dominguez Alegria Hombre
Al Rehab Superman
Demeter Linden
Dzintars Be Trendy Force
Excelsis Benedictus
Gap Established 1969 Electric
Khalis Heyam, Musk al Liali
Marc Jacobs Splash Cucumber
Moschino Toy Boy
Penhaligon's Racquets Formula, Sartorial
Products with linden usually considered to be unisex:
Acca Kappa Tilia Cordata
Alkemia Lost Highways, Prairie 66, Rudeneja
Andrea Maack Silk
April Aromatics Unter den Linden
l'Artisan Parfumeur La Chasse aux Papillons, l'Ete en Douce
Astier de Villatte Grand Chalet, Honey Blossom
Auphorie Zen
Ayala Moriel Kinmokusei
Balint After Rain
Baruti Onder de Linde
Bastide Aix en Provence Tilleul
Bond No. 9 Eau de Noho, Hamptons, Central Park, Central Park West
Cognoscenti No. 16 Tomato Leather
D.S. & Durga Rose Atlantic
DSH French Linden Blossom, Le Jardin Vert, Sud de France
Esquisse Parfum Apres la Pluie
Essenzialmente Laura Madeleine
Fessalonika Linden Tea
Filigree & Shadow Follow, Aurelia
Floris Limes
Frapin 1270
Fueguia 1833 Agua de Gardenia
Le Galion Tilleul
Guerlain Cologne du 68
Heretic Parfums Florgasm
Hermes Aroma d'Orange Verte
Imaginary Authors The Soft Lawn
Jacques Fath Lilas Exquis
Jean-Michel Duriez Mes Fleurs de Tulipes
JoAnne Bassett Le Voyage
Jo Malone London Blue Agava & Cacao
Krigler Schone Linden 05
Ladanika Summer Breath, Shadow Gardens
Lollia Dream No. 25
Neil Morris Clear
l'Occitane en Provence Karite Bebe
Odoratika Honey LInden Blossom
Ormonde Jayne Frangipani
d'Orsay Vouloir Etre Ailleurs C.G.
Phoenix Botanicals Meadow & Fir
Raymond Matts Maiaday
Ricardo Ramos Perfumes de Autor Alijibe
Stephanie de Saint-Aignan Amande Honorable
Tauer Zeta
Tokyo Milk Parfumerie Curiosite Waltz No 14
TRNP Spirit
Urban Scents Ber Cavok
Vero Profumo Naja
Voluspa Taporo, Linden & Dark Moss, Linden Blonde Tabac
Yan Froloff & Valery Mikhalitcyn Spes
Zents Fresh, Water, Oolong
Zoologist Beaver, Civet
The Tilia genus, somewhat confusingly called 'lime, 'linden,' or 'basswood,' includes about 30 species of trees and bushes that are native to Europe and Asia and are now found throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere, with the largest number of species in Asia. They actually are not related to the tree that produces the citrus lime fruit. The plants are mostly large deciduous trees, reaching 20-40m in height. Cultivated lindens sometimes are repeatedly chopped down, forcing the stump to regrow (coppicing) shoots or 'poles' that gradually increase the size of the stump to quite a large diameter.
A tree begins flowering at about 15 years of age and continues throughout its life. It has heart-shaped leaves and small yellow or white blossoms that typically bloom from late June through mid-July in Europe and North America. The flowers fade quickly, and they only have peak fragrance (and aromatic oils) for a few days.
Trees typically live for 150-350 years; in Europe, some linden trees have reached greater ages, sometimes up to 600 years or more, with one at the Imperial Castle of Nuremburg thought to be 1,000 years old and one in Gloucestershire estimated to be 2,000 years old.
Linden fossils, found from Europe to Siberia, have been dated to over 70 million years old. After the last ice age, littleleaf lindens dominated the woodlands of large parts of Europe. Archeologists have excavated linden tree dugout boats across much of central Europe, some dating to more than 7,000 years ago. There is evidence of the tree being planted and used for community social purposes there as early as the mid-8th century.
The name 'lime' is an altered form of Old and Middle English 'lind' or 'linde,' from the Latin 'lentus' (flexible). 'Linden' originally was an adjective ('made from linwood or lime-wood,' equivalent to 'wooden'), then by the 16th century it became a noun from the plural of German 'linde.' The tree is called lipa in all Slavic languages.
Linden in Perfumery
For perfumery, the fresh flowers are typically dehydrated and dried at low heat in large dehydrator machines, but in some places they are spread out traditionally on screens and allowed to dry in large open rooms, with fans for air circulation.
Linden absolute is solvent-extracted from the dried flower and attached leaf of the late-blooming small-leafed 'winter linden' (Tilia cordata, meaning 'heart-shaped'), the early broad-leafed 'summer lime' (Tilia platyphyllos), or one of the very common hybrids. The absolute is a thick, sticky, dark green, semi-solid mass. It is hard to use and must be diluted significantly in alcohol for use in perfume products. Linden is found most often in chypre and fougere compositions. The odor profile, resembling the smell of the blooming trees, is a bright yellow floral, with honey top aspects and herbaceous, grass-like or hay-like green undertone nuances. Its overall syrupy, sweet floral tone is similar to honeysuckle and is somewhat wine-like, but with some earthy tartness like a green lime. It is light, airy, sunny, and warm, a calming and comforting scent that lends itself especially to springtime compositions. The notes from early-blooming flowers tend to be more energetic, exhilarating and narcotic, while those from later-blooming ones are warmer and more honey-like.
By itself, linden can verge into being too cloying or powdery, so it needs to be balanced by deeper or smoother notes. Soft and subtle, it helps to balance sweeter florals such as jasmine, violet, rose, iris, and tuberose, and it adds mellowness to green, citrus, and herbal accords like orange blossom, neroli, grapefruit, lemon, basil, chamomile, ylang ylang, and vetiver. It also blends quite well with musk, vanilla, benzoin, and sandalwood. It is especially useful as a brightener in clean and sophisticated masculine blends. Used correctly as a top or middle note, it often is reminiscent of being outdoors in a park on a sunny late spring day.
The principal aromatic constituent of linden is farnesol. The authentic natural linden smell is rarely found in perfumery, since the very similar synthetic farnesol is significantly cheaper than the blossom absolute, and the majority of perfumes with the natural form are no longer even produced or they have been reformulated. Linden flower soliflores are not nearly as popular as other soliflores, and there are very few of them offered. However, true linden blossom fragrances are still created by a slowly growing group of Russian artisan perfumers. In perfumery and tea labeling, linden is sometimes known as 'tilleul.'
There is also a clear, transparent, less common CO2 extract with a scent that has intense honey notes; it is lighter and sunnier but sweeter and less green than the absolute. This extract is difficult to obtain but is actually easier to use, and active research is underway to improve and accelerate the extraction process, which should allow production of a wider range of true linden perfume compositions.
Other Uses
Linden trees are important plants for beekeepers, producing a very pale but richly flavored honey. Two mature linden trees can have enough flowers to produce nectar equal to that of an acre of sweet clover; a single acre of mature cultivated lindens make adequate nectar for over 1,000 pounds of honey. The flowers are also used widely, in many cultures, for herbal teas and tinctures. In addition, the flowers, raw leaf buds, and young leaves are edible and are sometimes used in salads.
The flowers, leaves, wood, and charcoal have been employed for medicinal purposes for centuries, primarily as a diaphoretic but also for treatment of colds, fever, infections, inflammation, high blood pressure, edema, headache, muscle spasms, anxiety, and liver and gallbladder disorders. In Germany, linden is included in modern common cold and antitussive preparations and in urological and sedative drugs, as well as in a tea used to treat pediatric influenza. Animal studies display binding to benzodiazepine receptors, and linden flavonoids are anxiolytic and sedating in mice. Research has suggested immunostimulatory and immunomodulatory activities of linden, with possible effects against tumors, but so far there have been no clinical studies showing chemotherapeutic benefit against cancer. Modern studies have shown Tilia extract to have in vitro antibacterial and antifungal activity, and current research is investigating its possible antiseptic use. Linden extract is often used in hair and scalp care products and in bath salts and creams to hydrate and soothe irritated skin.
Linden wood was used by ancient Vikings and Germanic tribes for constructing shields. The trees produce soft and easily worked timber with very little grain, making it popular for model-making, puppet-making, and intricate carving since the Middle Ages, especially in Germany and England. It is not clear how linden trees first spread to North American, but there is evidence that they were used for a variety of purposes by Native Americans. Starting in the 17th century, lindens began to be planted decoratively in public squares and along streets in Europe, and in the 17th and 18th centuries the timber played an important role in European city architecture. Ease of working and sanding the wood, and its resistance to warping and good acoustic properties, have made it useful for guitar bodies, wind instruments such as recorders, drum shells, and piano keys. It has also been a choice material for window blinds and shutters because it is lightweight but strong and suited to many finishes. The inner fibrous bark of the tree, known as 'bast' or basswood, was used for making cordage and for weaving of clothing by the Ainu people of Japan and by Britons during the Bronze Age.
Cultural Aspects
The masks of sarcophagi from the Hellenistic period in Egypt (c.323 BC-32 BC) were carved from linden wood. Lindens and their virtues are mentioned frequently in Greek mythology by Homer, Horace, Virgil, and Pliny. The linden is symbolic in German pre-Christian mythology, and local communities there traditionally assembled for community celebrations and judicial meetings under the trees. They believed that lightning would not strike the holy linden tree, so it often was planted close to churches and houses to bring luck. It also was used for carving sacred figures of saints in the Middle Ages and was called 'lignum sacrum' (sacred wood). In German folklore, the linden is the tree of truth and of lovers; it was believed that one could not tell a lie under the tree, and having a linden nearby was thought to bring fertility and prosperity.
Linden perfume products generally considered to be masculine include:
Adolfo Dominguez Alegria Hombre
Al Rehab Superman
Demeter Linden
Dzintars Be Trendy Force
Excelsis Benedictus
Gap Established 1969 Electric
Khalis Heyam, Musk al Liali
Marc Jacobs Splash Cucumber
Moschino Toy Boy
Penhaligon's Racquets Formula, Sartorial
Products with linden usually considered to be unisex:
Acca Kappa Tilia Cordata
Alkemia Lost Highways, Prairie 66, Rudeneja
Andrea Maack Silk
April Aromatics Unter den Linden
l'Artisan Parfumeur La Chasse aux Papillons, l'Ete en Douce
Astier de Villatte Grand Chalet, Honey Blossom
Auphorie Zen
Ayala Moriel Kinmokusei
Balint After Rain
Baruti Onder de Linde
Bastide Aix en Provence Tilleul
Bond No. 9 Eau de Noho, Hamptons, Central Park, Central Park West
Cognoscenti No. 16 Tomato Leather
D.S. & Durga Rose Atlantic
DSH French Linden Blossom, Le Jardin Vert, Sud de France
Esquisse Parfum Apres la Pluie
Essenzialmente Laura Madeleine
Fessalonika Linden Tea
Filigree & Shadow Follow, Aurelia
Floris Limes
Frapin 1270
Fueguia 1833 Agua de Gardenia
Le Galion Tilleul
Guerlain Cologne du 68
Heretic Parfums Florgasm
Hermes Aroma d'Orange Verte
Imaginary Authors The Soft Lawn
Jacques Fath Lilas Exquis
Jean-Michel Duriez Mes Fleurs de Tulipes
JoAnne Bassett Le Voyage
Jo Malone London Blue Agava & Cacao
Krigler Schone Linden 05
Ladanika Summer Breath, Shadow Gardens
Lollia Dream No. 25
Neil Morris Clear
l'Occitane en Provence Karite Bebe
Odoratika Honey LInden Blossom
Ormonde Jayne Frangipani
d'Orsay Vouloir Etre Ailleurs C.G.
Phoenix Botanicals Meadow & Fir
Raymond Matts Maiaday
Ricardo Ramos Perfumes de Autor Alijibe
Stephanie de Saint-Aignan Amande Honorable
Tauer Zeta
Tokyo Milk Parfumerie Curiosite Waltz No 14
TRNP Spirit
Urban Scents Ber Cavok
Vero Profumo Naja
Voluspa Taporo, Linden & Dark Moss, Linden Blonde Tabac
Yan Froloff & Valery Mikhalitcyn Spes
Zents Fresh, Water, Oolong
Zoologist Beaver, Civet
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Linear Fragrances
A common criticism of a fragrance is that it is 'linear,' starting with one smell and continuing that way until it is gone, with the implication that this is boring and unexciting. This concept is equivalent in many people's minds to the visual 'dead line' on a hospital heart monitor: no highs or lows, just a uniform line to nothingness. But fragrance life cycles are assessed very subjectively, with some people preferring complex journeys of notes, while others are partial to simpler, more linear evolutions. And sometimes one's preference depends upon the situation or mood. The general purposes of linear and non-linear scents tend to be different: for instance, a person might want one with a clean, easy to wear top or middle note that will last unchanged during school or work hours, a "what you smell is what you get" approach instead of an aroma the might turn musky and disappointing after a few hours. Going on a date, on the other hand, someone might desire the opposite effect: a pleasant top note, perhaps citrus, that transitions gradually and intriguingly through other accords and into a vanilla-lavender.
Most classical fragrances, especially French ones such as those from Chanel, are non-linear and might be called 'morphers,' going through phases or layers of notes over time as they interact with the skin. This derives from the fact that in the past, perfumes necessarily changed during wear because of the instability of their ingredients. This was especially true for those considered masculine, which often opened with a blast of brightness, and then - over time and with exposure to the skin and body warmth - became something else as the materials evaporated from highest to lowest volatility, sometimes becoming almost unrecognizable during the process. Because of this type of evolution, the perfume pyramid has been an effective tool for visualizing a fragrance's note composition during reviews and for classifying and categorizing fragrances. However, some experts claim that all perfumes are actually linear to some degree, with all notes perceivable at the first moment of spraying. In addition, if a fragrance is applied in areas relatively close to the nose and providing constant smell delivery, such as the throat and sides of the neck, the brain eventually is triggered to ignore the scent signals, and after as little as 30 minutes only the top and beginning of the middle notes are remembered by most people.
Linear fragrances, sometimes composed of one or only a few notes or accords, are designed to stay basically the same from start to finish of their life cycles, with individual notes working harmoniously together throughout. This is often achieved with floral bouquets (especially soliflores), but sometimes with other effects such as a spicy-fruity effect, and nearly always supported by traditional woody, mossy, or amber base notes. Some odor types are more suitable for this purpose than others, and linearity is sometimes a compromise of overall olfactory quality for increased technical performance.
The nuts and bolts of linear scent creation generally rely on composition using materials with similar volatilities, perhaps either all high-volatility ones (resulting in a very fleeting effect comparable to that of old, traditional colognes) or all low-volatility ingredients such as resinous or balsamic ones that give a dense, thick, lasting effect. In other words, it involves using all base notes, all heart notes, or (less often) all top notes. This can be done by an expert who carefully assesses the life of each component on a smelling strip, but it also can be done more scientifically: by focusing on the vapor pressure of each ingredient, based upon its proportion in the blend, it is possible to create a fragrance that essentially can maintain a nearly uniform composition as it evaporates. This is one of the reasons why all-natural perfumes are rarely constructed linearly: the raw materials themselves have varying nuances of vapor pressures and frequently are crystalline or viscous, which creates solubility issues; and restrictions on the use of certain materials make it even more difficult. However, the vapor pressures of materials can be manipulated by the use of various newer solvents. And it is sometimes possible to use essential oils that have a single dominant aromatic chemical, such as clove or rosewood oil.
However, linear fragrances do not necessarily depend only upon the volatility of materials. Some of them use strong bases, which can allow a complex scent to retain the diverse character of its main accord with increased tenacity. An important differentiation is one between linear and 'flat.' Complex linear scents can project through volume and dimension, which elevates them from mere imitation of a single smell to being a complete sensory experience. Some examples of this achievement include Heremessence fragrances such as Poivre Samarcande Hermès, Ambre Narguile Hermès, Vetiver Tonka, and Rose Ikebana; APOM Pour Homme by Maison Francis Kurkdjian (with a clear, lasting orange blossom freshness); Calvin Klein Eternity for Men; Thierry Mugler Alien; and Hermès Terre d'Hermès. Others are Guerlain Tonka Imperiale and Diptyque Philosykos.
In order to make an unchanging linear scent, a fragrance creator has to do one of two things, according to perfumer Ashley Eden Kessler. "You can identify loads of molecules with the same tenacity, or you can achieve it by the use of different materials that overlap olfactively as a singular impression, for example a green top, a green middle, and a green base that lock together to create a green linear existence."
The effect of a linear fragrance is comparable to the unison of a Gregorian chant: the typically fresh top notes seem to be missing entirely, replaced by small amounts of intensely strong materials that boost the overall character. This minimalist style was introduced in the 1980s by perfumer Sophia Grojsman, who created Trésor with an accord of only 4 or 5 ingredients that comprised 80% of the formula, flanked by other materials providing richness and complexity. Subsequently, with increasing numbers of fragrance launches, decreasing attention spans of consumers, the use of robot perfume compounding, restrictions on classical natural ingredients due to skin sensitizing concerns, and a growing cultural emphasis on 'simplicity,' other perfumes also tended to have short formulas. In his book The Alchemy of Scent, perfumer Jean-Claude Ella laments how focus groups and demand-led marketing grew in importance and stimulated the creation of perfumes with "the illusion of compactness... that had to express themselves without significant variation, with a strong, tight, and lasting presence. Diffusion and retention on the skin became powerful sales criteria." In other words, to ensure that consumers understood a fragrance from the first test spray and then proceeded to purchase a full bottle, manufacturers used perfume structures and chemicals that allowed the buyer to grasp the 'meaning' of a scent without requiring very much thinking time.
Manufacturers of low-cost scents don't want to invest in complicated orchestration of notes. Thus a cheap perfume often will be linear. For about the last 20 years, perhaps in reaction, there has been a somewhat snobbish emphasis on the art and creativity involved in producing non-linear fragrances, some of which have had 20 or 30 notes/accords and total ingredients in the hundreds, with the implication that complexity of composition and scent evolution equals quality. There also has been an emphasis on using natural or 'organic' materials, including essential oils, which often consist of many different molecules.
However, linear fragrances can be just as intricate and complex as those created in a pyramid style. An unchanging linear scent is not necessarily boring at all, and it may in fact be exactly what is wanted in a smell. Good linear scents are never truly simple, and engineering one is often much more technically and intelligently crafted that it would appear. Some of them have been quite refined, with structure provided not only by arranging the volatility of the ingredients, but also by using materials and ratios chosen to provide a stable skeleton for the scent.
Demeter's headspace technology allows it to match, with use of the fewest ingredients possible, the aromas of recognizable natural materials or environments. And there are actual single-molecule perfumes such as those of the Escentric Molecules series, technically simple but sometimes executed brilliantly. Says Berlin perfumer Geza Schön, who sometimes uses just one or two single-scent ingredients for a new perfume, "Linearity and complexity - those are the characteristics of any good perfume. But that does not mean that it has to be complicated. It doesn't take a genius to do this, you just have to be able to think outside the paradigm."
Often some or all of the materials in a linear fragrance are synthetic, consisting of single-scent molecules (in contrast to natural ingredients, such as rose absolute, which can contain hundreds of different molecules) that produce and maintain closely monitored effects acting in tandem. Improved technology, including newer fixatives and binding chemicals that slow the evaporation of chosen notes, has allowed for creation of increasingly complex linear fragrances using both synthetic and natural ingredients.
Recently, well-known perfume reviewer and biophysicist, Luca Turin, praised a unisex fragrance, Everlasting, from the perfumery The Zoo. Resinous, mossy, and dark, it is said to display labdanum, caramel, leather, and cedarwood. He described it as being a rare marriage of beauty and technical achievement, having no perceivable top, middle, or base notes, but rather giving an impression of a 'wall of scent,' like all the instruments in an orchestra playing at the same time. And he said that it stays sharp and in focus the entire time that it is worn, with a slight extra sparkle at the opening but with the volume of all the elements in unison unchanging. Its creator, Christophe Laudamiel, describes it as "chypre dark narcissus sensuous."
Other scent architectures that also do not fit the pyramid scheme
Prism - A variation on the linear scent concept is the 'prismatic' fragrance, in which there is a consistent central effect, but with occasional random notes appearing and disappearing repeatedly through the duration of the life cycle. An example of this is Chanel Allure Homme, in which there are four main and unchanging lines: green freshness, warm pepper sharpness, benzoin and sandalwood elegance, warm sensuality of labdanum and tonka, with no accord predominating. And revolving around these stable tones are more ephemeral fruit and floral notes.
Kaleidoscopic - Fragrances that are a tapestry of various notes which don't phase conventionally, but rather are a somewhat erratic tableau of complex accords working in harmony.
Baseless or Headless - These are rare scents, designed to lack either a base note or a top note entirely and therefore having a more limited evolution than a fragrance with a traditional pyramidal structure.
Undulating - These are perceived by the nose in recurring waves of notes, phasing in and out without a central theme. Sometimes this effect is an incidental illusion caused by the use of notes with similar smells in both the top and heart of the composition.
Linear masculine or unisex fragrances:
Acqua Viva Profumum Roma
Al Haramain Excellent
Amouage Portrayal Man
Azzaro Chrome
Bel Ami Vetiver Hermès
Bvlgari Black
Byredo M/Mink, Sundazed, Super Cedar
Calvin Klein Eternity for Men
Carolina Herrera Aqua
Caron Pour Une Homme
Chanel Allure Homme
Christian Dior Homme, Addict, Eau Sauvage
Clive Christian V for Men
Creed Aventus, Sublime Vanille, Green Irish Tweed
Demeter (all)
Diptyque Tam Dao, Philosykos
Encre Noir Lalique
Equipage Geranium Hermès
Escentric Molecule 01
Fendi for Men
Frederic Malle Eau de Magnolia
Giorgio Armani Ambre Eccentrico
Giorgio Beverly Hills for Men
Givenchy Pi
Guerlain Aqua Allegoria series, Vetiver, Tonka Imperiale
Hermès Terre d'Hermès
Hermessence Epice Marine Hermès, Poivre Samarcande Hermès, Ambre Narguile Hermès, Vetiver Tonka, Rose Ikebana
Indult Tihota
Jacques Fath Yang
Jean Louis Vermeil Pour Homme
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Kanon for Men
Le Labo (most)
Maison Francis Kurkdjian APOM Pour Homme
Maison Margiela By The Fireplace
MFK Grand Soir
Molinard Patchouli
Narciso Rodriguez for Him
Nasomatto Baraonda
l'Occitane en Provence
Prada Amber Pour Homme
Profumum Roma Patchouly
Proraso Red
Ralph Lauren Polo
Salvatore Ferragamo Pour Homme
Serge Lutens Santal Majuscule, Gris Clair, Chergui
St. James of London Sandalwood & Bergamot
The Zoo Everlasting
Thierry Mugler (most, especially Alien)
Tom Ford Tobacco Vanille, Bois Marocain
Wonderoud Comme des Garcons
Xerjoff Cruz del Sur II
A common criticism of a fragrance is that it is 'linear,' starting with one smell and continuing that way until it is gone, with the implication that this is boring and unexciting. This concept is equivalent in many people's minds to the visual 'dead line' on a hospital heart monitor: no highs or lows, just a uniform line to nothingness. But fragrance life cycles are assessed very subjectively, with some people preferring complex journeys of notes, while others are partial to simpler, more linear evolutions. And sometimes one's preference depends upon the situation or mood. The general purposes of linear and non-linear scents tend to be different: for instance, a person might want one with a clean, easy to wear top or middle note that will last unchanged during school or work hours, a "what you smell is what you get" approach instead of an aroma the might turn musky and disappointing after a few hours. Going on a date, on the other hand, someone might desire the opposite effect: a pleasant top note, perhaps citrus, that transitions gradually and intriguingly through other accords and into a vanilla-lavender.
Most classical fragrances, especially French ones such as those from Chanel, are non-linear and might be called 'morphers,' going through phases or layers of notes over time as they interact with the skin. This derives from the fact that in the past, perfumes necessarily changed during wear because of the instability of their ingredients. This was especially true for those considered masculine, which often opened with a blast of brightness, and then - over time and with exposure to the skin and body warmth - became something else as the materials evaporated from highest to lowest volatility, sometimes becoming almost unrecognizable during the process. Because of this type of evolution, the perfume pyramid has been an effective tool for visualizing a fragrance's note composition during reviews and for classifying and categorizing fragrances. However, some experts claim that all perfumes are actually linear to some degree, with all notes perceivable at the first moment of spraying. In addition, if a fragrance is applied in areas relatively close to the nose and providing constant smell delivery, such as the throat and sides of the neck, the brain eventually is triggered to ignore the scent signals, and after as little as 30 minutes only the top and beginning of the middle notes are remembered by most people.
Linear fragrances, sometimes composed of one or only a few notes or accords, are designed to stay basically the same from start to finish of their life cycles, with individual notes working harmoniously together throughout. This is often achieved with floral bouquets (especially soliflores), but sometimes with other effects such as a spicy-fruity effect, and nearly always supported by traditional woody, mossy, or amber base notes. Some odor types are more suitable for this purpose than others, and linearity is sometimes a compromise of overall olfactory quality for increased technical performance.
The nuts and bolts of linear scent creation generally rely on composition using materials with similar volatilities, perhaps either all high-volatility ones (resulting in a very fleeting effect comparable to that of old, traditional colognes) or all low-volatility ingredients such as resinous or balsamic ones that give a dense, thick, lasting effect. In other words, it involves using all base notes, all heart notes, or (less often) all top notes. This can be done by an expert who carefully assesses the life of each component on a smelling strip, but it also can be done more scientifically: by focusing on the vapor pressure of each ingredient, based upon its proportion in the blend, it is possible to create a fragrance that essentially can maintain a nearly uniform composition as it evaporates. This is one of the reasons why all-natural perfumes are rarely constructed linearly: the raw materials themselves have varying nuances of vapor pressures and frequently are crystalline or viscous, which creates solubility issues; and restrictions on the use of certain materials make it even more difficult. However, the vapor pressures of materials can be manipulated by the use of various newer solvents. And it is sometimes possible to use essential oils that have a single dominant aromatic chemical, such as clove or rosewood oil.
However, linear fragrances do not necessarily depend only upon the volatility of materials. Some of them use strong bases, which can allow a complex scent to retain the diverse character of its main accord with increased tenacity. An important differentiation is one between linear and 'flat.' Complex linear scents can project through volume and dimension, which elevates them from mere imitation of a single smell to being a complete sensory experience. Some examples of this achievement include Heremessence fragrances such as Poivre Samarcande Hermès, Ambre Narguile Hermès, Vetiver Tonka, and Rose Ikebana; APOM Pour Homme by Maison Francis Kurkdjian (with a clear, lasting orange blossom freshness); Calvin Klein Eternity for Men; Thierry Mugler Alien; and Hermès Terre d'Hermès. Others are Guerlain Tonka Imperiale and Diptyque Philosykos.
In order to make an unchanging linear scent, a fragrance creator has to do one of two things, according to perfumer Ashley Eden Kessler. "You can identify loads of molecules with the same tenacity, or you can achieve it by the use of different materials that overlap olfactively as a singular impression, for example a green top, a green middle, and a green base that lock together to create a green linear existence."
The effect of a linear fragrance is comparable to the unison of a Gregorian chant: the typically fresh top notes seem to be missing entirely, replaced by small amounts of intensely strong materials that boost the overall character. This minimalist style was introduced in the 1980s by perfumer Sophia Grojsman, who created Trésor with an accord of only 4 or 5 ingredients that comprised 80% of the formula, flanked by other materials providing richness and complexity. Subsequently, with increasing numbers of fragrance launches, decreasing attention spans of consumers, the use of robot perfume compounding, restrictions on classical natural ingredients due to skin sensitizing concerns, and a growing cultural emphasis on 'simplicity,' other perfumes also tended to have short formulas. In his book The Alchemy of Scent, perfumer Jean-Claude Ella laments how focus groups and demand-led marketing grew in importance and stimulated the creation of perfumes with "the illusion of compactness... that had to express themselves without significant variation, with a strong, tight, and lasting presence. Diffusion and retention on the skin became powerful sales criteria." In other words, to ensure that consumers understood a fragrance from the first test spray and then proceeded to purchase a full bottle, manufacturers used perfume structures and chemicals that allowed the buyer to grasp the 'meaning' of a scent without requiring very much thinking time.
Manufacturers of low-cost scents don't want to invest in complicated orchestration of notes. Thus a cheap perfume often will be linear. For about the last 20 years, perhaps in reaction, there has been a somewhat snobbish emphasis on the art and creativity involved in producing non-linear fragrances, some of which have had 20 or 30 notes/accords and total ingredients in the hundreds, with the implication that complexity of composition and scent evolution equals quality. There also has been an emphasis on using natural or 'organic' materials, including essential oils, which often consist of many different molecules.
However, linear fragrances can be just as intricate and complex as those created in a pyramid style. An unchanging linear scent is not necessarily boring at all, and it may in fact be exactly what is wanted in a smell. Good linear scents are never truly simple, and engineering one is often much more technically and intelligently crafted that it would appear. Some of them have been quite refined, with structure provided not only by arranging the volatility of the ingredients, but also by using materials and ratios chosen to provide a stable skeleton for the scent.
Demeter's headspace technology allows it to match, with use of the fewest ingredients possible, the aromas of recognizable natural materials or environments. And there are actual single-molecule perfumes such as those of the Escentric Molecules series, technically simple but sometimes executed brilliantly. Says Berlin perfumer Geza Schön, who sometimes uses just one or two single-scent ingredients for a new perfume, "Linearity and complexity - those are the characteristics of any good perfume. But that does not mean that it has to be complicated. It doesn't take a genius to do this, you just have to be able to think outside the paradigm."
Often some or all of the materials in a linear fragrance are synthetic, consisting of single-scent molecules (in contrast to natural ingredients, such as rose absolute, which can contain hundreds of different molecules) that produce and maintain closely monitored effects acting in tandem. Improved technology, including newer fixatives and binding chemicals that slow the evaporation of chosen notes, has allowed for creation of increasingly complex linear fragrances using both synthetic and natural ingredients.
Recently, well-known perfume reviewer and biophysicist, Luca Turin, praised a unisex fragrance, Everlasting, from the perfumery The Zoo. Resinous, mossy, and dark, it is said to display labdanum, caramel, leather, and cedarwood. He described it as being a rare marriage of beauty and technical achievement, having no perceivable top, middle, or base notes, but rather giving an impression of a 'wall of scent,' like all the instruments in an orchestra playing at the same time. And he said that it stays sharp and in focus the entire time that it is worn, with a slight extra sparkle at the opening but with the volume of all the elements in unison unchanging. Its creator, Christophe Laudamiel, describes it as "chypre dark narcissus sensuous."
Other scent architectures that also do not fit the pyramid scheme
Prism - A variation on the linear scent concept is the 'prismatic' fragrance, in which there is a consistent central effect, but with occasional random notes appearing and disappearing repeatedly through the duration of the life cycle. An example of this is Chanel Allure Homme, in which there are four main and unchanging lines: green freshness, warm pepper sharpness, benzoin and sandalwood elegance, warm sensuality of labdanum and tonka, with no accord predominating. And revolving around these stable tones are more ephemeral fruit and floral notes.
Kaleidoscopic - Fragrances that are a tapestry of various notes which don't phase conventionally, but rather are a somewhat erratic tableau of complex accords working in harmony.
Baseless or Headless - These are rare scents, designed to lack either a base note or a top note entirely and therefore having a more limited evolution than a fragrance with a traditional pyramidal structure.
Undulating - These are perceived by the nose in recurring waves of notes, phasing in and out without a central theme. Sometimes this effect is an incidental illusion caused by the use of notes with similar smells in both the top and heart of the composition.
Linear masculine or unisex fragrances:
Acqua Viva Profumum Roma
Al Haramain Excellent
Amouage Portrayal Man
Azzaro Chrome
Bel Ami Vetiver Hermès
Bvlgari Black
Byredo M/Mink, Sundazed, Super Cedar
Calvin Klein Eternity for Men
Carolina Herrera Aqua
Caron Pour Une Homme
Chanel Allure Homme
Christian Dior Homme, Addict, Eau Sauvage
Clive Christian V for Men
Creed Aventus, Sublime Vanille, Green Irish Tweed
Demeter (all)
Diptyque Tam Dao, Philosykos
Encre Noir Lalique
Equipage Geranium Hermès
Escentric Molecule 01
Fendi for Men
Frederic Malle Eau de Magnolia
Giorgio Armani Ambre Eccentrico
Giorgio Beverly Hills for Men
Givenchy Pi
Guerlain Aqua Allegoria series, Vetiver, Tonka Imperiale
Hermès Terre d'Hermès
Hermessence Epice Marine Hermès, Poivre Samarcande Hermès, Ambre Narguile Hermès, Vetiver Tonka, Rose Ikebana
Indult Tihota
Jacques Fath Yang
Jean Louis Vermeil Pour Homme
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Kanon for Men
Le Labo (most)
Maison Francis Kurkdjian APOM Pour Homme
Maison Margiela By The Fireplace
MFK Grand Soir
Molinard Patchouli
Narciso Rodriguez for Him
Nasomatto Baraonda
l'Occitane en Provence
Prada Amber Pour Homme
Profumum Roma Patchouly
Proraso Red
Ralph Lauren Polo
Salvatore Ferragamo Pour Homme
Serge Lutens Santal Majuscule, Gris Clair, Chergui
St. James of London Sandalwood & Bergamot
The Zoo Everlasting
Thierry Mugler (most, especially Alien)
Tom Ford Tobacco Vanille, Bois Marocain
Wonderoud Comme des Garcons
Xerjoff Cruz del Sur II
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Rose
"The rose, wherein the world divine makes itself flesh."
Dante Alighieri
Rose is an extremely important component in perfumery, perhaps the most important flower scent, and rose oil is the most widely used essential oil. Rose is said to be present in at least 75% of feminine perfumes and at least 10% of all men's fragrances.
The name 'rose' comes from the Latin 'rosa,' which may have come from the Italic language Oscan or from Greek rhódon, itself derived from an Old Persian word.
The rose plant is a woody perennial bush of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae. There are over 300 species. They can be erect shrubs or climbing/trailing vines. Sharp growths along the stems that are commonly called thorns are technically prickles (outgrowths of the epidermis); a few species have only vestigial prickles without points. Flowers vary in size and shape but often are large and showy, in colors ranging from white through yellow and reds. The majority of species are native to Asia, with smaller nunbers native to Europe, North America, and northwestern Africa. Different species hybridize naturally quite easily. Most roses are deciduous, but a few are evergreen. The aggregate fruit is berry-like and usually red and is called a rose hip. Roses can survive for many years; those that cover the walls of the Cathedral of Hildeshiem in Germany were originally planted over a thousand years ago.
Rose History
It is thought that roses came into existence 60-70 million years ago. Rose fossils dating to at least 32-35 million years ago, in the Paleolithic era, have been found in Colorado mountain deposits. Rose cultivation is believed to have begun around 5,000 years ago in China. The modern rose is a man-made phenomenon: what we call roses are all actually cultivars of representatives of the genus Briar or Wild rose. The vast majority of rose varieties are obtained through breeding, by crossing and selection. There are up to 50,000 varieties of rose.
The cultivation of various fragrant flowers for obtaining perfumes, including rose water, may date back to the neo-Persian Sasanian Empire (224-651 AD). Large-scale commercial rose growing originated in ancient Persia and then spread through Arabia and India and eventually into eastern Europe, and the process of creating rose water through steam distillation was refined by Persian and Arab chemists in the medieval Islamic world. Egyptians used it for smoothing and scenting the skin and hair, sweetening the breath, freshening and cooling the air of their houses, and scenting the bodies of their dead. The major rose-producing countries of the world include The Netherlands, Colombia, Ecuador, Kenya, Israel, Italy, United States, and Japan.
Cleopatra was known to cover the flowers of her palace with rose petals when receiving Marc Antony, and the Romans introduced rose water for washing clothes and for scenting fountains during feasts. Dried rose petals were used for church incense and candles by the 6th century, and they were rubbed on furniture as a scented preservative. In the 10th century, the Arab physician Avicenna first distilled the oil of rose petals. By the 12th century, a society of glove makers established in Paris scented their leather products with rose attar. Arnaldo de Vilanova, a Catalan physician in the 13th century, studied further and documented the effects of soaking, squeezing, and heating rose petals for extracting the essential oils; and by the 14th century the art of mixing rose attar with alcohol to create a perfume was developed. During the medieval period, tinctures of rose called 'simples' were used for aesthetic purposes: women packed their clothes with simples in cedarwood chests, sprinkled simples on bedding, and wore glass simple-scented bottles on chains around their necks. By the 16th century, rose perfumes had come into general use in England. King Henry VIII was said to have a favorite rose scent recipe consisting of 6 spoons rose oil, 6 spoons rose water, 1/4 oz. sugar, 2 grains musk, and 1 oz. ambergris. At one point during the 17th century, the rose was so highly valued that the flowers were considered to be legal tender for use in transactions. Empress Josephine Bonaparte was enamored of roses in the 18th century and had over 250 varieties in her famous gardens, many of them new hybrids of her own creation. The Victorian era of the late 19th century marked the widespread use of roses in formal English gardens, and it was at this time that botanists and other scientists first made attempts to define and classify floral scents.
The excessive cross-breeding of roses to create the myriad of their colors has led also to hybrid roses generally losing their scents. Perfumers now primarily use just two species of rose: Rosa damascena (damask, Turkish, or Damascus rose, or the Rose of Castile) and Rosa centifolia (the 'hundred-leafed rose,' also known as the Grasse rose or Rose de Mai).
Rosa damascena has been known in the Middle East for centuries. It is a hybrid with light pink to light red flowers. This rose was used in the 7th century by Arabs to produce rose water. By the 19th century, the species had spread from Syria to Europe. It is widely grown now in Bulgaria, Syria, Turkey, Russia, Germany, Pakistan, India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and China. The majority of rose perfumes are based on this rose. The 'Taif rose,' a species of R. damascena that is grown in Saudi Arabia near Mecca, is especially valued in the perfume industry for its intense fragrance. The 'Moroccan rose' is another variety of R. damascena that is grown in Morocco's M'Goun Valley (Valley of the Roses) and is used primarily to make rose absolute and rose water.
Rosa centifolia (Provence rose or cabbage rose), is a hybrid that was developed by the Dutch beginning in the 17th century. It is cultivated primarily in Morocco but also in France, Egypt, Tunisia, and other countries of North African, with lesser amounts grown in Europe and China. The plant is traditionally called the 'Rose de Mai' in France after the month during which its harvesting begins near the perfumery center of Grasse. It is less commonly used in perfumery than R. damascena but is also quite popular.
Rose Essential Oil
About 70% of the world's rose oil comes from Bulgaria, with other significant producers being Turkey, Iran, and Morocco, and smaller amounts made in France and China. Some of the most highly prized oil is produced in Grasse. To make the oils, rose petals are picked early in the morning, when the scent is strongest. The aroma begins to fade quickly after the flowers are cut, so they are processed the same day.
There are two main types of extracted rose essential oil used in perfumery, rose otto and rose absolute.
Rose otto (attar) is steam-distilled from crushed petals. Because the scent begins to fade quickly after flower picking, some farmers transport their own copper stills to the fields, heating them there over wood fires to distill the oil immediately. The species used most often is R. damascena, with much smaller amounts of similar R. gallica also used. The petals are soaked in water and then heated, which causes release of their volatile oils into the steam. The steam is condensed and cooled in flasks, and the oils float to the surface, where they can be collected. This primary oil makes up 20% of the finished attar. The water that condenses along with the oil is drained off and redistilled several times (cohabation), to produce the water-soluble fractions such as phenethyl alcohol, which are vital aroma components and comprise the other 80%. The two oils are combined to make the final rose attar. Some of the hydrosol portion (rose water) is also used by itself in perfumes to give a lighter rose fragrance, as well as in skin care products, medicines, and food flavorings.
Rose otto is clear to pale pink or yellow or yellow-gray in color. Initially it is mobile but gradually becomes more viscous and will form white crystals at room temperature, which disappear when the oil is warmed slightly. The essence has a very strong odor, but it is more pleasing when diluted for use in perfume. It is very rich and deep, sweetly floral, and slightly spicy; the rose attar blends very well with other oils. Due to the heat required for distillation, some of the aroma compounds denature (break down chemically), so rose attar does not really smell very similar to blooming rose flowers. Its main fragrance constituents are geraniol, citronellol, and rose camphor. It takes about 10,000 pounds of rose petals to make a single pound of rose otto.
The major producers of rose otto are in the Bulgarian Rose Valley, near the town of Kazanlak; in Grasse, France; and in the city of Kannauj in India (the 'Grasse of the East').
Specific well-known variants of rose otto include:
- Rose Alba (aka White Rose Otto), which is made from a particular pink-blush and white flower of plants dating to the Middle Ages. The oil is more labor intensive, and twice as many flowers are needed to produce the oil, so it is extremely expensive. It is used in very small amounts in aromatherapy.
- Rose Bulgarian, an oil with a very rich, deep, sweetly floral, and slightly spicy fragrance, cultivated in the heart of the Kazanlak Valley of Roses. Its scent is long-lasting and is used in very high-quality perfumes.
- Jack Rose (aka General Jack), named after a French General of the Napoleonic wars, having ddep red to dark purple petals, and developed in 1853. It is thought by horticulturalists to be an ancestor of the modern rose. The oil is extremely fragrant and is also used in expensive perfumes.
Rose absolute is solvent-extracted. The flowers are agitated in a rotating vat with liquid hexane, which draws out the aromatic elements and other soluble substances such as pigments when it evaporates. The extract is then vacuum processed, which removes the solvent for re-use. The remaining waxy residue is known as rose concrete. Ethanol is added, dissolving the aromatic constituents and leaving behind the wax and other undesired subsances. The alcohol is then low-pressure evaporated, which leaves the finished absolute. The absolute is often processed further to remove impurities. This is a darker oil than rose attar, dark yellow to orange or reddish-brown in color and with no crystals. Its fragrance is somewhat deeper, richer, and sweeter than the otto, with undertones of honey and greenness. With less pronounced spicy aspects, its aroma is thought by many perfumers to be closer to that of an actual blooming rose (probably due to the low temperatures used in the process). Because of its potency, tenacity, and relative cost effectiveness (producing 7 pounds of absolute from 10,000 pounds of petals), it is more widely used in perfumery than rose otto.
Rose absolute is produced primarily in southern France, Morocco, Bulgaria, and Turkey; and most often it is made with R. centifolia, which typically yields more 50% more absolute than R. damascena petals. Some perfume manufacturers, especially those in France, prefer to buy the raw concrete and perform the extraction themselves; they can then call it a 'French absolute.'
Similar to rose absolute, organic rose extract is derived using a solvent-extraction process but with more 'benign' organic solvents that are said to result in a softer and less intense oil than conventional absolute made with hexane. This extract's color is clear to pink or greenish.
Rose CO2 concrete or CO2 absolute is produced in much smaller amounts, by 'supercritical' carbon dioxide extraction. In this process, carbon dioxide under high pressure and relatively low temperature becomes a fluid with the permeation properties of a gas but the solvent properties of a liquid, and it is able to remove the aromatics from the rose petals. It extracts a wide range of compounds unaltered by heat, thus producing an essence that is most faithful to the original flower fragrance. The equipment for CO2 extraction is expensive, which is reflected in the high price of the product.
For any of these extraction techniques, many different factors, ranging from the environmental conditions and soil composition where the roses are grown (the terroir) to the conditions of storage and the quality of extraction equipment, can affect the composition of the essential oil that is produced.
To mitigate the high cost of rose oil production, some dealers and perfumers dilute the oil with geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) or palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) oils, both of which are rich in fragrant geraniol. Some of the adulterated 'rose oils' are actually up to 90% geranium or palmarosa oil. This is referred to as 'extending' the rose fragrance. It is sometimes done also to balance the components of an oil to a more desirable structure.
Rose in Perfumery
Rose has variously been called the king of flowers and the queen of fragrances. The fresh flower scent has very wide diversity of character. Its qualities are generally divided by experts into 7 distinct categories: true damask rose, nasturtium, orris, violet, apple, clove, and lemon. There are an additional 20+ aroma tones that can be discerned by some experts, including honeysuckle, musk, hyacinth, honey, wine, marigold, peppers, parsley, and raspberry. Generally, darker colored roses with thick, velvety petals have the strongest and most memorable scents. Red and pink roses have the most 'true' rose fragrance. White and yellow blooms have an aroma more similar to violet, nasturtium, and lemon; and orange roses often smell of fruits, violet, nasturtium, and clove. It is claimed that the fragrance of most modern roses, although strong at times, lacks the exquisite beauty and depth of early rose ancestors. However, some of the older rose variants still in existence, being closer to the original species, have retained the successful combinations and balances of components that were 'perfected' by nature over millions of years of evolution.
The scent of rose essential oils is very complex, intense and sensual yet delicate. Its odor profile is fresh, warm, sweet, clean, and velvety, with nuances of lemongrass, amber, cognac, minty greenness, powder, wood, and fruit (peach, plum). It is a powerful note, somewhat waxy and slightly spicy or balsamic.
Rose has been used most prominently in floral, chypre, and Oriental compositions, with chypres using it in their heart notes to harmonize the citrus top with the mossy base. Rose de mai absolute is used extensively in mixed floral bases and also is added to round off the sharp or rough edges of synthetic compositions. The most classic perfume combination is rose with jasmine, but it also pairs especially well with amber, benzoin, bergamot, lemon, mandarin, neroli, petitgrain, chamomile, clary sage, fennel, ginger, geranium, frankincense, ylang ylang, patchouli, vetiver, cedarwood, and sandalwood. Gourmand rose themes are also popular, with vanilla, raspberry, and honey frequently paired with rose, and Middle Eastern fragrances sometimes combine it with date scent.
Aroma Chemical Composition
The four key compounds that contribute to the distinctive scent of rose oil are beta-damascenone, beta-damascone, beta-ionone, and rose oxide. Although these molecules make up less than 1% of the oil by volume, they account for slightly more than 90% of the overall smell due to their extremely low odor-detection thresholds (the lowest concentration of a certain odor compound that is perceivable by the human sense of smell). This is a pattern quite similar to that of other flowers such as jasmine, narcissus, and lavender. Beta-damascenone's presence and quantity is sometimes considered to be a marker for the overall quality of a rose oil. Other molecules contributing significantly to the complex scent include citronellol, geraniol, nerol, and phenylethyl alcohol (PEA). These substances occur in different proportions from one rose variant to another. One study of a Bulgarian damask rose otto found it to have 45% citronellol, 25% geraniol, and 9% nerol; while Provence rose absolute had 10-12% citronellol, 5-7% geraniol, and over 60% phenylethyl alcohol.
Rose oxide by itself smells like a 'metallic rose.' Phenylethyl alcohol has a soft petal-like character typical of lighter-colored roses. Citronellol has a warm and vibrant character most prominent in darker hybrids. Geraniol is similar, but with a somewhat sharper character reminiscent of geranium leaves, while nerol is the harshest but freshest of these molecules.
The principal difference between rose otto and rose absolute is the content of phenylethyl alcohol. Distilled rose otto oil contains hardly any PEA at all because PEA is very soluble in water and remains in the hydrolate. Some but not all of the PEA can be recovered by repeated distillation (cohobation) of the hydrolate and re-attached to the primary oil. Phenylethyl alcohol is also the main scent ingredient in commercial rose water. Some rose extracts, especially those not processed as completely, can also contain indoles, which make them smell more animalic.
Synthetic Rose
Scientists and perfumers have been unable to reproduce exactly in the lab the complex and subtle scent notes of natural rose oil. But because of the high price and limited supplies of the oil, due to crop failures, natural disasters, and war-related production instability, perfumers have had to rely heavily on various synthetic rose ingredients, which are many times cheaper. These are not derived from natural aromatic raw materials, but rather from petroleum. Chemists have also tried to create alternate substances with smells similar to rose but longer lasting, by making the synthetic molecules heavier but still retaining the same spatial shapes. It is very common for perfumers to use combinations of natural rose extracts and synthetics, and nearly all perfumes now contain synthetic materials. Among the most often used are synthetic versions of alpha-damascone and rose oxide.
Taking a different approach, the Boston company Robertet has recently teamed with a biology startup, Gingko Bioworks, to genetically engineer baker's yeast to produce a complete synthetic rose oil. Says Patrick Boyle, one of the organism designers, "We're calling this project the cultured rose. What we're doing is taking genes from roses, tranferring them into yeast, and rebuilding the biosynthetic pathways for the fragrances that roses produce." By working with designer yeasts, the company hopes to be able to customize its own rose fragrances by selectively mixing and matching genes from different rose varieties in the lab.
Rose Popularity
Rose was considered too old-fashioned and passé in perfumery for many years, but it has undergone a renaissance over the past 10-20 years and once again has become ubiquitous. According to Mia Collins, head of beauty supplies at Harrods, rose scents have regained their popularity in England because they remind the current generation there of childhoods with hedgerows, verges, and paths littered with wild roses, and of the common experience of making rose water with petals from home flower beds. Says perfumer Terry de Gunzberg of damask rose scents, "They're delicate yet powerful and pure, they suit all seasons, and they're pan-generation." According to Linda Levy, president of the Fragrance Foundation, rose scent never really left: "Rose has been an important element forever. However, I think there are phases it's gone through olfactory-wise, and what we once considered a rose scent - like what we smell when we walk through a garden - has taken on a different meaning." And noting the use of rose substitutes, she says, "Natural fragrance isn't always better than synthetic. Sometimes the perfumer's interpretation is what they 'feel' is a rose scent, rather than using the actual bloom."
Rose Gender
For centuries, the terms 'feminine,' 'beauty,' and 'powdery' have been associated with the rose flower. However, according to sociologist Marcello Aspria, there is nothing actually gender-specific about the rose, other than the meaning accorded to it in a given social context at a given time. In the Middle East, for instance, rose-based fragrances have always been quite popular among men. As unisex perfumes have become more prevalent in Western perfumery, rose has been incorporated into fragrances for both genders more than ever. In fact, certain rose species carry a hint of citrusy, woody, and spicy notes in their scents, lending themselves to making oils with tones more typically associated as masculine. In general, the rose aroma is made up of several facets that can make a fragrance easy for a man to wear: simultaneously citrusy, green-leafy, peppery, and sometimes animalic.
Masculine fragrances usually use rose relatively sparingly, while feminine compositions use it more heavily. According to perfumers, the secret to making a rose fragrance wearable by men is in masking rose's persistent flowery sweetness with notes such as earthy patchouli, clove, pepper, and/or leather; or using the sweetness strategically, as a counterpoint to darker, woodier, more bitter masculine materials like oud and civet, which give the light rose tone more depth and gravitas. And, says perfumer Francis Kurkdjian, "It's a question of timing, because what is 'masculine' today may not have been 'masculine' a decade ago and may not be 'masculine' two or three decades from now. The idea of 'masculinity' and 'femininity' are conventions, and they are concepts that evolve with society. When I started in perfume 25 years ago, fruity notes - it could be pineapple or pear or apple - were not appealing for men, but are very commonly used in male perfumes now. Taste has evolved since then... and fragrance is a translation of the time you live in."
Other Uses
Rose essential oil is known for its antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and astringent properties. Dioscorides, an ancient Greek physician, developed an elixir by cooking roses in wine, which could relieve headaches and conditions involving the eyes and ears, as well as womb problems. In Medieval Europe, rose water was used to clean the hands at meal tables before and after feasts. Native Americans used various parts of the rose to treat fevers, colds, diarrhea, and stomach problems, and they steeped rose hips to make a liquid that soothed inflammation and reduced wound swelling. Many cultures have used rose extracts for relieving insomnia, anxiety, and depression, and for stabilizing mood swings. Rose has often been considered an aphrodisiac.
Some rose petals are edible and can be used as a food flavoring or garnish or brewed in herbal tea. They have been used in many regional dishes in Europe and throughout Asia. Chicken with rose is a popular preparation in Middle East cuisine, especiallt in Iran. The French are known for their use of rose syrup (rose water with added sugar) in cooking. Rose hips have been used traditionally to make wine, vinegar, jams, syrup, and teas, and rose water is used in many cultures for flavoring sweets, baked goods, and drinks.
Rose Geranium
Rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens v. roseum), sometimes called sweet-scented geranium or old-fashioned geranium, is in a different genus than true roses. It is native to South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, but it is also grown in China and Europe. It is an erect shrub that reaches a height of 1-2m, and it has plush, velvety leaves and flowers varying from pale pink to almost white. Some of the plants are strongly scented, while others have little or no scent. The sweet, floral, lemony aroma is said to have rich but less powdery rose notes than actual rose, and it is used frequently in aromatherapy, as well as in some perfumes. The oil, steam-distilled from all parts of the plant, is found in herbal, floral, fougère, and chypre compositions, and it is used sometimes to increase the longevity of the scent of rose essential oil or to balance oils low in phenylethyl alcohol. As noted before, it also is used to 'extend' the volume of true rose oils.
Male fragrances with prominent rose (or rose geranium) include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia, Mirto di Panarea, Colonia Leather
Aesop Rozu
Ajmal Rose Wood, Ambre Pimente
Al-Rehab Aseel
Amouage Lyric Man, Reflection Man
Aramis 900
Armaf Club Nuit Intense
Art de Parfum Sensual Oud
Atelier Cologne Rose Anonyme
Atkinsons 24 Old Bond Street
Azzaro Now Men, Acteur
l'Artisan Parfumeur Voleur de Roses
Bond No. 9 Washington Square
Bvlgari Garanat
Burberry Brit for Men
Byredo Rose Noir
Cartier Declaration d'Un Soir
Chanel Egoiste
Christian Dior Ambre Nuit, Homme, Oud Ispahan
Comme des Garcons Rose
Creed Aventus, Royal Mayfair, Viking
Czech & Speake Dark Rose, No. 88
Davidoff Zino
The Different Company Rose Poivree
Diptyque l'Ombre dans l'Eau, Othoniel Rosa, Oud Palao
Domenico Caraceni 1913
Emanuel Ungaro pour l'Homme III
Etro ManRose
Ferrari Essence Oud
Floris White Rose, Special No. 127, No. 89
Francis Kurkdjian l'Homme a la Rose, Lumiere Noire, Oud Satin Mood
Franck Olivier Oud Touch
Frederic Malle Portrait of a Lady, Noir Epices
Guerlain Habit Rouge (var.)
Hermes Rose Ikebana
Histoires de Parfumes 1876
Karl Lagerfeld Bois de Vetiver
Le Labo Rose 31
Majda Bekkali Mon Nom est Rouge
Montale Aoud, Black Aoud
Ormonde Jayne Ta'if
Oros Oud
Paco Rabanne One Million
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet, Elixir
Ramón Monegal l'Eau de Rose
Rasasi Al Wisam Day
Reyane Tradition Acqua di Parisis Arabian Roses
Serge Lutens Santal Majuscule, Fumerie Turque
Tabac Original, Man Gravity
Tauer Incense Rose
Tom Ford Noir de Noir
Tommy Hilfiger Loud for Him
Trussardi Black Rose
Van Cleef & Arpels pour Homme
Versace The Dreamer
Yves Rocher Comme une Evidence Homme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Ultime
And my favorite Rose was in Casablanca...
"The rose, wherein the world divine makes itself flesh."
Dante Alighieri
Rose is an extremely important component in perfumery, perhaps the most important flower scent, and rose oil is the most widely used essential oil. Rose is said to be present in at least 75% of feminine perfumes and at least 10% of all men's fragrances.
The name 'rose' comes from the Latin 'rosa,' which may have come from the Italic language Oscan or from Greek rhódon, itself derived from an Old Persian word.
The rose plant is a woody perennial bush of the genus Rosa, in the family Rosaceae. There are over 300 species. They can be erect shrubs or climbing/trailing vines. Sharp growths along the stems that are commonly called thorns are technically prickles (outgrowths of the epidermis); a few species have only vestigial prickles without points. Flowers vary in size and shape but often are large and showy, in colors ranging from white through yellow and reds. The majority of species are native to Asia, with smaller nunbers native to Europe, North America, and northwestern Africa. Different species hybridize naturally quite easily. Most roses are deciduous, but a few are evergreen. The aggregate fruit is berry-like and usually red and is called a rose hip. Roses can survive for many years; those that cover the walls of the Cathedral of Hildeshiem in Germany were originally planted over a thousand years ago.
Rose History
It is thought that roses came into existence 60-70 million years ago. Rose fossils dating to at least 32-35 million years ago, in the Paleolithic era, have been found in Colorado mountain deposits. Rose cultivation is believed to have begun around 5,000 years ago in China. The modern rose is a man-made phenomenon: what we call roses are all actually cultivars of representatives of the genus Briar or Wild rose. The vast majority of rose varieties are obtained through breeding, by crossing and selection. There are up to 50,000 varieties of rose.
The cultivation of various fragrant flowers for obtaining perfumes, including rose water, may date back to the neo-Persian Sasanian Empire (224-651 AD). Large-scale commercial rose growing originated in ancient Persia and then spread through Arabia and India and eventually into eastern Europe, and the process of creating rose water through steam distillation was refined by Persian and Arab chemists in the medieval Islamic world. Egyptians used it for smoothing and scenting the skin and hair, sweetening the breath, freshening and cooling the air of their houses, and scenting the bodies of their dead. The major rose-producing countries of the world include The Netherlands, Colombia, Ecuador, Kenya, Israel, Italy, United States, and Japan.
Cleopatra was known to cover the flowers of her palace with rose petals when receiving Marc Antony, and the Romans introduced rose water for washing clothes and for scenting fountains during feasts. Dried rose petals were used for church incense and candles by the 6th century, and they were rubbed on furniture as a scented preservative. In the 10th century, the Arab physician Avicenna first distilled the oil of rose petals. By the 12th century, a society of glove makers established in Paris scented their leather products with rose attar. Arnaldo de Vilanova, a Catalan physician in the 13th century, studied further and documented the effects of soaking, squeezing, and heating rose petals for extracting the essential oils; and by the 14th century the art of mixing rose attar with alcohol to create a perfume was developed. During the medieval period, tinctures of rose called 'simples' were used for aesthetic purposes: women packed their clothes with simples in cedarwood chests, sprinkled simples on bedding, and wore glass simple-scented bottles on chains around their necks. By the 16th century, rose perfumes had come into general use in England. King Henry VIII was said to have a favorite rose scent recipe consisting of 6 spoons rose oil, 6 spoons rose water, 1/4 oz. sugar, 2 grains musk, and 1 oz. ambergris. At one point during the 17th century, the rose was so highly valued that the flowers were considered to be legal tender for use in transactions. Empress Josephine Bonaparte was enamored of roses in the 18th century and had over 250 varieties in her famous gardens, many of them new hybrids of her own creation. The Victorian era of the late 19th century marked the widespread use of roses in formal English gardens, and it was at this time that botanists and other scientists first made attempts to define and classify floral scents.
The excessive cross-breeding of roses to create the myriad of their colors has led also to hybrid roses generally losing their scents. Perfumers now primarily use just two species of rose: Rosa damascena (damask, Turkish, or Damascus rose, or the Rose of Castile) and Rosa centifolia (the 'hundred-leafed rose,' also known as the Grasse rose or Rose de Mai).
Rosa damascena has been known in the Middle East for centuries. It is a hybrid with light pink to light red flowers. This rose was used in the 7th century by Arabs to produce rose water. By the 19th century, the species had spread from Syria to Europe. It is widely grown now in Bulgaria, Syria, Turkey, Russia, Germany, Pakistan, India, Uzbekistan, Iran, Saudi Arabia, and China. The majority of rose perfumes are based on this rose. The 'Taif rose,' a species of R. damascena that is grown in Saudi Arabia near Mecca, is especially valued in the perfume industry for its intense fragrance. The 'Moroccan rose' is another variety of R. damascena that is grown in Morocco's M'Goun Valley (Valley of the Roses) and is used primarily to make rose absolute and rose water.
Rosa centifolia (Provence rose or cabbage rose), is a hybrid that was developed by the Dutch beginning in the 17th century. It is cultivated primarily in Morocco but also in France, Egypt, Tunisia, and other countries of North African, with lesser amounts grown in Europe and China. The plant is traditionally called the 'Rose de Mai' in France after the month during which its harvesting begins near the perfumery center of Grasse. It is less commonly used in perfumery than R. damascena but is also quite popular.
Rose Essential Oil
About 70% of the world's rose oil comes from Bulgaria, with other significant producers being Turkey, Iran, and Morocco, and smaller amounts made in France and China. Some of the most highly prized oil is produced in Grasse. To make the oils, rose petals are picked early in the morning, when the scent is strongest. The aroma begins to fade quickly after the flowers are cut, so they are processed the same day.
There are two main types of extracted rose essential oil used in perfumery, rose otto and rose absolute.
Rose otto (attar) is steam-distilled from crushed petals. Because the scent begins to fade quickly after flower picking, some farmers transport their own copper stills to the fields, heating them there over wood fires to distill the oil immediately. The species used most often is R. damascena, with much smaller amounts of similar R. gallica also used. The petals are soaked in water and then heated, which causes release of their volatile oils into the steam. The steam is condensed and cooled in flasks, and the oils float to the surface, where they can be collected. This primary oil makes up 20% of the finished attar. The water that condenses along with the oil is drained off and redistilled several times (cohabation), to produce the water-soluble fractions such as phenethyl alcohol, which are vital aroma components and comprise the other 80%. The two oils are combined to make the final rose attar. Some of the hydrosol portion (rose water) is also used by itself in perfumes to give a lighter rose fragrance, as well as in skin care products, medicines, and food flavorings.
Rose otto is clear to pale pink or yellow or yellow-gray in color. Initially it is mobile but gradually becomes more viscous and will form white crystals at room temperature, which disappear when the oil is warmed slightly. The essence has a very strong odor, but it is more pleasing when diluted for use in perfume. It is very rich and deep, sweetly floral, and slightly spicy; the rose attar blends very well with other oils. Due to the heat required for distillation, some of the aroma compounds denature (break down chemically), so rose attar does not really smell very similar to blooming rose flowers. Its main fragrance constituents are geraniol, citronellol, and rose camphor. It takes about 10,000 pounds of rose petals to make a single pound of rose otto.
The major producers of rose otto are in the Bulgarian Rose Valley, near the town of Kazanlak; in Grasse, France; and in the city of Kannauj in India (the 'Grasse of the East').
Specific well-known variants of rose otto include:
- Rose Alba (aka White Rose Otto), which is made from a particular pink-blush and white flower of plants dating to the Middle Ages. The oil is more labor intensive, and twice as many flowers are needed to produce the oil, so it is extremely expensive. It is used in very small amounts in aromatherapy.
- Rose Bulgarian, an oil with a very rich, deep, sweetly floral, and slightly spicy fragrance, cultivated in the heart of the Kazanlak Valley of Roses. Its scent is long-lasting and is used in very high-quality perfumes.
- Jack Rose (aka General Jack), named after a French General of the Napoleonic wars, having ddep red to dark purple petals, and developed in 1853. It is thought by horticulturalists to be an ancestor of the modern rose. The oil is extremely fragrant and is also used in expensive perfumes.
Rose absolute is solvent-extracted. The flowers are agitated in a rotating vat with liquid hexane, which draws out the aromatic elements and other soluble substances such as pigments when it evaporates. The extract is then vacuum processed, which removes the solvent for re-use. The remaining waxy residue is known as rose concrete. Ethanol is added, dissolving the aromatic constituents and leaving behind the wax and other undesired subsances. The alcohol is then low-pressure evaporated, which leaves the finished absolute. The absolute is often processed further to remove impurities. This is a darker oil than rose attar, dark yellow to orange or reddish-brown in color and with no crystals. Its fragrance is somewhat deeper, richer, and sweeter than the otto, with undertones of honey and greenness. With less pronounced spicy aspects, its aroma is thought by many perfumers to be closer to that of an actual blooming rose (probably due to the low temperatures used in the process). Because of its potency, tenacity, and relative cost effectiveness (producing 7 pounds of absolute from 10,000 pounds of petals), it is more widely used in perfumery than rose otto.
Rose absolute is produced primarily in southern France, Morocco, Bulgaria, and Turkey; and most often it is made with R. centifolia, which typically yields more 50% more absolute than R. damascena petals. Some perfume manufacturers, especially those in France, prefer to buy the raw concrete and perform the extraction themselves; they can then call it a 'French absolute.'
Similar to rose absolute, organic rose extract is derived using a solvent-extraction process but with more 'benign' organic solvents that are said to result in a softer and less intense oil than conventional absolute made with hexane. This extract's color is clear to pink or greenish.
Rose CO2 concrete or CO2 absolute is produced in much smaller amounts, by 'supercritical' carbon dioxide extraction. In this process, carbon dioxide under high pressure and relatively low temperature becomes a fluid with the permeation properties of a gas but the solvent properties of a liquid, and it is able to remove the aromatics from the rose petals. It extracts a wide range of compounds unaltered by heat, thus producing an essence that is most faithful to the original flower fragrance. The equipment for CO2 extraction is expensive, which is reflected in the high price of the product.
For any of these extraction techniques, many different factors, ranging from the environmental conditions and soil composition where the roses are grown (the terroir) to the conditions of storage and the quality of extraction equipment, can affect the composition of the essential oil that is produced.
To mitigate the high cost of rose oil production, some dealers and perfumers dilute the oil with geranium (Pelargonium graveolens) or palmarosa (Cymbopogon martinii) oils, both of which are rich in fragrant geraniol. Some of the adulterated 'rose oils' are actually up to 90% geranium or palmarosa oil. This is referred to as 'extending' the rose fragrance. It is sometimes done also to balance the components of an oil to a more desirable structure.
Rose in Perfumery
Rose has variously been called the king of flowers and the queen of fragrances. The fresh flower scent has very wide diversity of character. Its qualities are generally divided by experts into 7 distinct categories: true damask rose, nasturtium, orris, violet, apple, clove, and lemon. There are an additional 20+ aroma tones that can be discerned by some experts, including honeysuckle, musk, hyacinth, honey, wine, marigold, peppers, parsley, and raspberry. Generally, darker colored roses with thick, velvety petals have the strongest and most memorable scents. Red and pink roses have the most 'true' rose fragrance. White and yellow blooms have an aroma more similar to violet, nasturtium, and lemon; and orange roses often smell of fruits, violet, nasturtium, and clove. It is claimed that the fragrance of most modern roses, although strong at times, lacks the exquisite beauty and depth of early rose ancestors. However, some of the older rose variants still in existence, being closer to the original species, have retained the successful combinations and balances of components that were 'perfected' by nature over millions of years of evolution.
The scent of rose essential oils is very complex, intense and sensual yet delicate. Its odor profile is fresh, warm, sweet, clean, and velvety, with nuances of lemongrass, amber, cognac, minty greenness, powder, wood, and fruit (peach, plum). It is a powerful note, somewhat waxy and slightly spicy or balsamic.
Rose has been used most prominently in floral, chypre, and Oriental compositions, with chypres using it in their heart notes to harmonize the citrus top with the mossy base. Rose de mai absolute is used extensively in mixed floral bases and also is added to round off the sharp or rough edges of synthetic compositions. The most classic perfume combination is rose with jasmine, but it also pairs especially well with amber, benzoin, bergamot, lemon, mandarin, neroli, petitgrain, chamomile, clary sage, fennel, ginger, geranium, frankincense, ylang ylang, patchouli, vetiver, cedarwood, and sandalwood. Gourmand rose themes are also popular, with vanilla, raspberry, and honey frequently paired with rose, and Middle Eastern fragrances sometimes combine it with date scent.
Aroma Chemical Composition
The four key compounds that contribute to the distinctive scent of rose oil are beta-damascenone, beta-damascone, beta-ionone, and rose oxide. Although these molecules make up less than 1% of the oil by volume, they account for slightly more than 90% of the overall smell due to their extremely low odor-detection thresholds (the lowest concentration of a certain odor compound that is perceivable by the human sense of smell). This is a pattern quite similar to that of other flowers such as jasmine, narcissus, and lavender. Beta-damascenone's presence and quantity is sometimes considered to be a marker for the overall quality of a rose oil. Other molecules contributing significantly to the complex scent include citronellol, geraniol, nerol, and phenylethyl alcohol (PEA). These substances occur in different proportions from one rose variant to another. One study of a Bulgarian damask rose otto found it to have 45% citronellol, 25% geraniol, and 9% nerol; while Provence rose absolute had 10-12% citronellol, 5-7% geraniol, and over 60% phenylethyl alcohol.
Rose oxide by itself smells like a 'metallic rose.' Phenylethyl alcohol has a soft petal-like character typical of lighter-colored roses. Citronellol has a warm and vibrant character most prominent in darker hybrids. Geraniol is similar, but with a somewhat sharper character reminiscent of geranium leaves, while nerol is the harshest but freshest of these molecules.
The principal difference between rose otto and rose absolute is the content of phenylethyl alcohol. Distilled rose otto oil contains hardly any PEA at all because PEA is very soluble in water and remains in the hydrolate. Some but not all of the PEA can be recovered by repeated distillation (cohobation) of the hydrolate and re-attached to the primary oil. Phenylethyl alcohol is also the main scent ingredient in commercial rose water. Some rose extracts, especially those not processed as completely, can also contain indoles, which make them smell more animalic.
Synthetic Rose
Scientists and perfumers have been unable to reproduce exactly in the lab the complex and subtle scent notes of natural rose oil. But because of the high price and limited supplies of the oil, due to crop failures, natural disasters, and war-related production instability, perfumers have had to rely heavily on various synthetic rose ingredients, which are many times cheaper. These are not derived from natural aromatic raw materials, but rather from petroleum. Chemists have also tried to create alternate substances with smells similar to rose but longer lasting, by making the synthetic molecules heavier but still retaining the same spatial shapes. It is very common for perfumers to use combinations of natural rose extracts and synthetics, and nearly all perfumes now contain synthetic materials. Among the most often used are synthetic versions of alpha-damascone and rose oxide.
Taking a different approach, the Boston company Robertet has recently teamed with a biology startup, Gingko Bioworks, to genetically engineer baker's yeast to produce a complete synthetic rose oil. Says Patrick Boyle, one of the organism designers, "We're calling this project the cultured rose. What we're doing is taking genes from roses, tranferring them into yeast, and rebuilding the biosynthetic pathways for the fragrances that roses produce." By working with designer yeasts, the company hopes to be able to customize its own rose fragrances by selectively mixing and matching genes from different rose varieties in the lab.
Rose Popularity
Rose was considered too old-fashioned and passé in perfumery for many years, but it has undergone a renaissance over the past 10-20 years and once again has become ubiquitous. According to Mia Collins, head of beauty supplies at Harrods, rose scents have regained their popularity in England because they remind the current generation there of childhoods with hedgerows, verges, and paths littered with wild roses, and of the common experience of making rose water with petals from home flower beds. Says perfumer Terry de Gunzberg of damask rose scents, "They're delicate yet powerful and pure, they suit all seasons, and they're pan-generation." According to Linda Levy, president of the Fragrance Foundation, rose scent never really left: "Rose has been an important element forever. However, I think there are phases it's gone through olfactory-wise, and what we once considered a rose scent - like what we smell when we walk through a garden - has taken on a different meaning." And noting the use of rose substitutes, she says, "Natural fragrance isn't always better than synthetic. Sometimes the perfumer's interpretation is what they 'feel' is a rose scent, rather than using the actual bloom."
Rose Gender
For centuries, the terms 'feminine,' 'beauty,' and 'powdery' have been associated with the rose flower. However, according to sociologist Marcello Aspria, there is nothing actually gender-specific about the rose, other than the meaning accorded to it in a given social context at a given time. In the Middle East, for instance, rose-based fragrances have always been quite popular among men. As unisex perfumes have become more prevalent in Western perfumery, rose has been incorporated into fragrances for both genders more than ever. In fact, certain rose species carry a hint of citrusy, woody, and spicy notes in their scents, lending themselves to making oils with tones more typically associated as masculine. In general, the rose aroma is made up of several facets that can make a fragrance easy for a man to wear: simultaneously citrusy, green-leafy, peppery, and sometimes animalic.
Masculine fragrances usually use rose relatively sparingly, while feminine compositions use it more heavily. According to perfumers, the secret to making a rose fragrance wearable by men is in masking rose's persistent flowery sweetness with notes such as earthy patchouli, clove, pepper, and/or leather; or using the sweetness strategically, as a counterpoint to darker, woodier, more bitter masculine materials like oud and civet, which give the light rose tone more depth and gravitas. And, says perfumer Francis Kurkdjian, "It's a question of timing, because what is 'masculine' today may not have been 'masculine' a decade ago and may not be 'masculine' two or three decades from now. The idea of 'masculinity' and 'femininity' are conventions, and they are concepts that evolve with society. When I started in perfume 25 years ago, fruity notes - it could be pineapple or pear or apple - were not appealing for men, but are very commonly used in male perfumes now. Taste has evolved since then... and fragrance is a translation of the time you live in."
Other Uses
Rose essential oil is known for its antioxidant, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and astringent properties. Dioscorides, an ancient Greek physician, developed an elixir by cooking roses in wine, which could relieve headaches and conditions involving the eyes and ears, as well as womb problems. In Medieval Europe, rose water was used to clean the hands at meal tables before and after feasts. Native Americans used various parts of the rose to treat fevers, colds, diarrhea, and stomach problems, and they steeped rose hips to make a liquid that soothed inflammation and reduced wound swelling. Many cultures have used rose extracts for relieving insomnia, anxiety, and depression, and for stabilizing mood swings. Rose has often been considered an aphrodisiac.
Some rose petals are edible and can be used as a food flavoring or garnish or brewed in herbal tea. They have been used in many regional dishes in Europe and throughout Asia. Chicken with rose is a popular preparation in Middle East cuisine, especiallt in Iran. The French are known for their use of rose syrup (rose water with added sugar) in cooking. Rose hips have been used traditionally to make wine, vinegar, jams, syrup, and teas, and rose water is used in many cultures for flavoring sweets, baked goods, and drinks.
Rose Geranium
Rose geranium (Pelargonium graveolens v. roseum), sometimes called sweet-scented geranium or old-fashioned geranium, is in a different genus than true roses. It is native to South Africa, Zimbabwe, and Mozambique, but it is also grown in China and Europe. It is an erect shrub that reaches a height of 1-2m, and it has plush, velvety leaves and flowers varying from pale pink to almost white. Some of the plants are strongly scented, while others have little or no scent. The sweet, floral, lemony aroma is said to have rich but less powdery rose notes than actual rose, and it is used frequently in aromatherapy, as well as in some perfumes. The oil, steam-distilled from all parts of the plant, is found in herbal, floral, fougère, and chypre compositions, and it is used sometimes to increase the longevity of the scent of rose essential oil or to balance oils low in phenylethyl alcohol. As noted before, it also is used to 'extend' the volume of true rose oils.
Male fragrances with prominent rose (or rose geranium) include:
Acqua di Parma Colonia, Mirto di Panarea, Colonia Leather
Aesop Rozu
Ajmal Rose Wood, Ambre Pimente
Al-Rehab Aseel
Amouage Lyric Man, Reflection Man
Aramis 900
Armaf Club Nuit Intense
Art de Parfum Sensual Oud
Atelier Cologne Rose Anonyme
Atkinsons 24 Old Bond Street
Azzaro Now Men, Acteur
l'Artisan Parfumeur Voleur de Roses
Bond No. 9 Washington Square
Bvlgari Garanat
Burberry Brit for Men
Byredo Rose Noir
Cartier Declaration d'Un Soir
Chanel Egoiste
Christian Dior Ambre Nuit, Homme, Oud Ispahan
Comme des Garcons Rose
Creed Aventus, Royal Mayfair, Viking
Czech & Speake Dark Rose, No. 88
Davidoff Zino
The Different Company Rose Poivree
Diptyque l'Ombre dans l'Eau, Othoniel Rosa, Oud Palao
Domenico Caraceni 1913
Emanuel Ungaro pour l'Homme III
Etro ManRose
Ferrari Essence Oud
Floris White Rose, Special No. 127, No. 89
Francis Kurkdjian l'Homme a la Rose, Lumiere Noire, Oud Satin Mood
Franck Olivier Oud Touch
Frederic Malle Portrait of a Lady, Noir Epices
Guerlain Habit Rouge (var.)
Hermes Rose Ikebana
Histoires de Parfumes 1876
Karl Lagerfeld Bois de Vetiver
Le Labo Rose 31
Majda Bekkali Mon Nom est Rouge
Montale Aoud, Black Aoud
Ormonde Jayne Ta'if
Oros Oud
Paco Rabanne One Million
Penhaligon's Hammam Bouquet, Elixir
Ramón Monegal l'Eau de Rose
Rasasi Al Wisam Day
Reyane Tradition Acqua di Parisis Arabian Roses
Serge Lutens Santal Majuscule, Fumerie Turque
Tabac Original, Man Gravity
Tauer Incense Rose
Tom Ford Noir de Noir
Tommy Hilfiger Loud for Him
Trussardi Black Rose
Van Cleef & Arpels pour Homme
Versace The Dreamer
Yves Rocher Comme une Evidence Homme
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Ultime
And my favorite Rose was in Casablanca...
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Perfume Solvents: Carrier Alcohols and Oils
Because most aromatic organic molecules will not dissolve in water, solvents used in perfumes usually are alcohols or fixed carrier oils. Carrier oils are vegetable oils, extracted from the fatty parts of plants, that 'carry' aromatic ingredients in fragrances. They are said to be 'fixed' because they do not evaporate along with the aromas, but they make the scented essential oils 'come alive' and diffuse into the air. These oils are used in both perfumery and aromatherapy.
Rather than oils, however, alcohol has been used as the major perfume carrier. It has been used this way in perfumes in Europe since early in the 12th century. Grain or grape alcohol (190 proof or higher) or perfumer's alcohol is most often used. Perfumer's alcohol is 200 proof denatured ethanol, sometimes blended with isopropyl myristate (to aid in absorption) and monopropylene glycol (a cosolvent that allows fragrance oils to be solubilized, controlling the alcohol evaporation). Alcohol does not mix with fixed carrier oils, so they are never combined in products.
Essential oils are added to the alcohol for fragrance, then combined with fixatives, coloring agents, and preservatives. The alcohol medium protects the wearer by diluting the essential oils that otherwise could cause skin irritation; it lifts and carries the scent further as it evaporates; it tones down the fragrance so it is not so unpleasantly pungent; and it assists in dissolving aromatic materials that are thick or resinous, allowing them to be blended. Alcohols evaporate much more quickly than oils, thus dispersing scent into the air faster.
The following alcohols are used in perfume compositions:
Cane alcohol, which has a relatively strong, toasted aroma with notes of molasses, brown sugar, and/or hard caramel. It is usually used for fragrances with vanilla or sweet and spicy herbs, such as in Oriental compositions, whose essences it seems to enhance. It is said to be more environmentally friendly than other alcohols: an acre of sugar cane produces double the amount of alcohol that corn does, so not as much land is needed.
Grape alcohol, with floral aromas, earthy but not sweet. It is said to have slight notes of pine, lemon, berries, melons, cherries, and black currant. The scent can be prominent, even with other fragrance layers. Some perfumers prefer grape alcohol, claiming that is forms the best bond with natural perfume ingredients and carries their scents better than others. Discovered in the 16th century, Spiritus Vini (alcohol distilled from natural grape wines) was commonly used by European perfumers by the 18th and 19th centuries because of their abundant wine grape crops, which made it cheap to use. In modern times, grape alcohol is sometimes replaced in 'natural' perfumes with alcohols distilled from apple or pear ciders.
Wheat alcohol, crisp and very slightly spicy, sometimes with a hint of freshly baked bread. Alcohol made from wheat (or other grains such as rice or barley) was at one time the preference of perfumers because it has less smell than cane or grape alcohol.
Corn alcohol, the most consistently neutral in aroma, renowned for its ability to create a pure, nearly odorless base. The best one to use for delicate botanicals. Corn alcohol is the non-synthetic alcohol most widely used by commercial perfume manufacturers.
Synthetic alcohol, a petroleum product that is usually cheaper than the other alcohols and is replacing botanical alcohols in most commercial perfumes.
Most commercial fragrances are made with SD40 Alcohol, which is a 'specially denatured' ethanol, of whatever source. It is denatured with the addition of t-butyl alcohol and brucine sulfate. Other denatured alcohols that are commonly used in U.S. cosmetic products are SD Alcohols 23-A, 29, 35, 35-A, and 40-B, with the number designation indicating the specific denaturant(s) added. Other common denaturants in perfumes include denatonium benzoate, diethyl phthalate, and methyl alcohol. Some perfumers, especially those making 'natural' fragrances, claim that additives, especially methyl alcohol, are readily absorbed across the skin and can be toxic.
Carrier oils, which keep the fragrance closer to the skin than alcohols do, still are used in some perfume products, especially roll-on or dabbing types. One of their main advantages is that they are less harsh and are non-drying; and since dry skin does not hold a scent well, the oil base assists in retaining the aroma on the skin for longer than alcohol-based perfumes.
Oils were thought to have been used first as a perfume carrier medium in ancient Greece. Since oils evaporate slowly, scents of these perfumes would have been subtle, and one would have to be close to the wearer to smell them. In Greece and later in Rome, the abundance of olive oil made it the first choice oil for perfumes, though other oils such as almond were also popular. Then, as now, cheaper oils generally were better for use as carriers because they had less scent of their own to compete with the fragrance materials.
Carrier oils can be extracted from plants by one or more of five major methods, producing different qualities of oil:
1. Cold pressed. In this process, the nuts or seeds are placed in a horizontal press with a rotating screw that drives them through a barrel-shaped hollow and compresses them, forcing the oil to separate. The oil seeps out through an opening in the end of the barrel, while the 'meal' or pulp remains inside. (In centuries past, the crushing was done with stones, which is a method still used in some areas of Europe and Asia.) Due to the friction created, a slight amount of heat is produced, but not enough to damage the oil; the harder the nuts or seeds, the higher the required pressure to extract the oils and thus the higher the friction and heat. Cold-pressed oils retain all of their aroma and vitamins. The legal definition of 'cold pressed' is that the oil must be produced at a temperature below 122 degrees F, and most are actually controlled at temperatures of 80-90 degrees F. Cold pressing typically removes the least amount of oil from the seed (80-90%), making it the most expensive method available. However, balancing this is the fact that there are no solvent residues, so the oils are higher in natural colors and scents.
2. Expeller pressed. This is another mechanical method, in which the raw materials are squeezed under high pressure by a similar hydraulic, screw-type machine in a single step. The oil seeps through numerous small openings in the container. This process causes the material to heat more through friction, often to temperatures above 120-200 degrees F that destroy some nutrients. Expeller pressing obtains 87-95% of the oil from most seeds, although it is claimed that as little as 65% is removed at times, making the process more expensive overall. When expeller pressing is done at extremely slow rates, so that the resulting temperatures remain below 122 degrees F, it is termed 'low resistance' expeller pressing, and it can legally be called cold pressing. Other newer variants of this method that meet cold pressing standards are Modified Atmospheric Crushing (MAC) and Modified Atmospheric Packing (MAP), which use presses with enhanced refrigeration cooling mechanisms in an effort to minimize heat damage.
3. Refined. In this procedure, oils are first degummed by water and/or oil centrifuge separation to remove phospholipids, then refined. The refining can be done through physical steam distillation or through chemical treatment with weak alkali bases to remove free fatty acids (FFA), pigments, and contaminants such as metal ions. Chemical refining is the older, more traditional method. Modern chemical refining is done via repeated caustic soda treatments. The resulting neutral oils finally are deodorized (by vaporizing the oils and vacuum-removing volatile aromatics) and bleached (by passing them through earth or clay). The total process is called RDB for 'refined, deodorized, and bleached.' RDB processing is often done with expeller pressed oil to purify it further, improving color and texture. A final refinement that is sometimes done is winterization, which involves cooling the oil and filtering it to remove any solid crystallized portions, leaving a lighter and clearer oil.
4. Partially refined. This is similar to whole refining except that rather than the two-step degumming and neutralizing, a single neutralizing process is used to removed the FFA phosphatides.
5. Unrefined. Some experts define both cold pressed and expeller pressed oil as 'unrefined,' while others say that to be truly unrefined, no pressure can be used. Instead, the raw material must made into a paste and then washed and fine-filtered using a screen. No further processing to alter the condition (color, scent) is done. This type of oil is also sometimes called 'organic.'
Other methods also used, but less frequently, are enfleurage, infusion/maceration, solvent extraction, and CO2 extraction. Maceration is used for botanicals that do not contain sufficient oil to justify pressing methods. Solvent extraction is used with some seeds, such as canola, for which it is the most efficient, removing 97-99% of the oil. This involves soaking the raw material in ethanol, methanol, petroleum ether, or hexane to rupture the cell membranes, then filtering out the solvent. If an oil does not explicitly say 'cold pressed' or 'expeller pressed' on the bottle, then it most likely was solvent extracted.
The main disadvantage of relatively unrefined oils is that they can be less stable, even at room temperatures, meaning they are more likely to go rancid in a short period of time. Their shelf lives can sometimes be extended by adding 1% of vitamin E oil. Refined oils have a significantly longer shelf life, and they often are less expensive.
There are over 50 different carrier oils on the market that are used in perfumes. The five most often used are almond oil, apricot kernel oil, avocado oil, coconut oil, and jojoba oil.
Almond oil is a favorite carrier oil for both perfumes and aromatherapy, transporting scents better than most others. It contains vitamin E, vitamin D, calcium, and magnesium. It reduces inflammation and irritation, soothes sore or itchy skin, and moisturizes the skin and lips. The oil is reputed to delay aging processes and to lighten dark skin. It adds a silky texture to a fragrance blend. Almond oil has a very light, subtle aroma with hints of nuttiness, and it complements essential oil scents very well. The almond tree is native to the Middle East and southern Asia, but the largest producers of almonds are the U.S., Spain, and Iran.
Almond oil is obtained using solvent extraction, CO2 extraction, or low-temperature pressure systems. Refined oil, the cheapest and worst quality oil, comes from the use of solvents. CO2 extraction results in higher quality oil but at a high price. Cold pressing and expeller pressing, producing unrefined oil, are the most cost-effective options for achieving quality almond oil.
Apricot kernel oil is a good carrier. It is fine-textured and is absorbed quickly through the skin without leaving any oily residue. It contains vitamins A, C, and E. The oil has anti-inflammatory and anti-aging properties. It is not quite odorless, and it has a pale yellow color that may stain light-colored clothing. Its slight smell resembles that of vanilla essential oil. Apricot kernel oil is popular for aromatherapy use. Turkey is the largest apricot producer, followed by Iran and Uzbekistan.
The oil is extracted by cold pressing of kernels that have been soaked in water to soften the outer shells. Sometimes the kernels are pulverized into a powder or paste before the pressing. The 'press-cake' left inside the squeezing barrel is subsequently water- or steam-distilled to remove any residual oil.
Avocado oil also has a light odor as a carrier, but it blends well, and it emphasizes the scents of essential oils. It is rich in vitamins A, D, and E, and it is said to moisturize, relieve eczema, and decrease the effects of aging. Due to its rich, thick, oily consistency, it usually is highly diluted for perfumes. The avocado tree is native to Mexico and Central America. Mexico, Chile, and the Dominican Republic are the largest producers of avocados.
The process for recovering avocado oil is mechanical extraction, after the skin and stone have been removed: the flesh is ground to a paste and then slowly churned at 104-122 degrees F, the oil and water phases are separated from the pulp with a centrifuge, and then the oil is removed from the water in final high-speed 'polishing' centrifuges. The resulting 'virgin' oil is sometimes refined further.
Coconut oil is another versatile carrier oil and is the most popular among home perfumer makers. It has vitamin E and soothing fatty acids such as lauric acid, caprylic acid, and capric acid. These fatty acids are antifungal, antibacterial, and anti-oxidizing. Because of its thick consistency, it is better for lip balms and body lotions than for perfumes. Raw coconut oil is generally solid at room temperature, but it often is fractionated for sale in liquid form. It is relatively resistant to becoming rancid. The coconut palm grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The Philippines, Indonesia, and India are the largest coconut producers.
Dry processing of the coconut involves extracting the meat and drying it with fire, sunlight, or kilns to create 'copra.' The copra is pressed and/or dissolved with hexane solvent to produce the oil and a mash, which are then separated by filtering. Wet processing, on the other hand, uses coconut milk from the raw coconut: the proteins in the milk naturally create an emulsion of oil and water; this emulsion is pretreated with cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, or distillation, or some combination of these, and then is centrifuged. Wet processing has a lower yield and requires expensive equipment. Both of these methods produce what is termed refined oil. To obtain virgin oil, the fresh meat or milk is just cold pressed, which may then be followed by centrifuging.
Jojoba seed oil is an excellent carrier, better than all except almond, and is recommended especially for home perfume making. It moisturizes and is absorbed quickly without leaving any greasy effect. A liquid at room temperature, it is colorless and nearly odorless, and when combined with other oils it loses any of its own faint smell, emphasizing the aromas of the essential oils. The oil solidifies at cooler temperatures. It is also used in moisturizing, softening, and anti-aging products; makeup removing products; acne medications; and hair products. Jojoba is a shrub that grows in dry regions of northern Mexico and the southwestern U.S. Approximately 60% of a jojoba seed's weight is oil. Jojoba oil does not become rancid, and it has a very long shelf life. Some manufacturers sell two varieties, a golden one with a slight smell and a clear one that has been charcoal filtered to remove color and any residual odor.
The best quality jojoba oil (actually a liquid wax) is made by cold pressing or expeller pressing the dried seeds and then filtering to remove glycerin. To make refined oil, the virgin oil is bleached, filtered further, and decolorized/deodorized; this is the type most often used in making commercial cosmetic products.
Olive oil is sometimes used as a carrier oil, but its smell is stronger and it does not blend as well. Grapeseed oil is used as a base for many skin care products because of its toning and non-clogging characteristics, providing a smooth finish, but it is used less often in perfumes, especially oil-based ones. Palm oil, a semi-solid at room temperature, has very little scent and is often used in cosmetic products because of its natural antioxidants. Other carrier oils used more often in skin care products include sea buckthorn oil, macadamia nut oil, meadowfoam oil, camellia seed oil, argan oil, rosehip oil, evening primrose oil, pomegranate oil, hemp seed oil, borage oil, carrot seed oil, and neem oil. Civet oil and ambergris are still commercially available to use as oil carrier bases, but they are very expensive.
Other fluids that are sometimes added to fragrances in smaller amounts that also have some carrier properties include dipropylene glycol (DPG), glycerin, and dioctyl adipate (DOA). DPG, petrochemically derived, can dilute otherwise insoluble materials in fragrances. Benzyl benzoate and benzyl alcohol are also sometimes used to aid in the blending of materials with which it is more difficult to work. Also available are medium-chain hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon-ether solvents (MCHE), which primarily are used by a few niche perfumers to make non-aqueous, 'non-alcohol' perfumes.
Because most aromatic organic molecules will not dissolve in water, solvents used in perfumes usually are alcohols or fixed carrier oils. Carrier oils are vegetable oils, extracted from the fatty parts of plants, that 'carry' aromatic ingredients in fragrances. They are said to be 'fixed' because they do not evaporate along with the aromas, but they make the scented essential oils 'come alive' and diffuse into the air. These oils are used in both perfumery and aromatherapy.
Rather than oils, however, alcohol has been used as the major perfume carrier. It has been used this way in perfumes in Europe since early in the 12th century. Grain or grape alcohol (190 proof or higher) or perfumer's alcohol is most often used. Perfumer's alcohol is 200 proof denatured ethanol, sometimes blended with isopropyl myristate (to aid in absorption) and monopropylene glycol (a cosolvent that allows fragrance oils to be solubilized, controlling the alcohol evaporation). Alcohol does not mix with fixed carrier oils, so they are never combined in products.
Essential oils are added to the alcohol for fragrance, then combined with fixatives, coloring agents, and preservatives. The alcohol medium protects the wearer by diluting the essential oils that otherwise could cause skin irritation; it lifts and carries the scent further as it evaporates; it tones down the fragrance so it is not so unpleasantly pungent; and it assists in dissolving aromatic materials that are thick or resinous, allowing them to be blended. Alcohols evaporate much more quickly than oils, thus dispersing scent into the air faster.
The following alcohols are used in perfume compositions:
Cane alcohol, which has a relatively strong, toasted aroma with notes of molasses, brown sugar, and/or hard caramel. It is usually used for fragrances with vanilla or sweet and spicy herbs, such as in Oriental compositions, whose essences it seems to enhance. It is said to be more environmentally friendly than other alcohols: an acre of sugar cane produces double the amount of alcohol that corn does, so not as much land is needed.
Grape alcohol, with floral aromas, earthy but not sweet. It is said to have slight notes of pine, lemon, berries, melons, cherries, and black currant. The scent can be prominent, even with other fragrance layers. Some perfumers prefer grape alcohol, claiming that is forms the best bond with natural perfume ingredients and carries their scents better than others. Discovered in the 16th century, Spiritus Vini (alcohol distilled from natural grape wines) was commonly used by European perfumers by the 18th and 19th centuries because of their abundant wine grape crops, which made it cheap to use. In modern times, grape alcohol is sometimes replaced in 'natural' perfumes with alcohols distilled from apple or pear ciders.
Wheat alcohol, crisp and very slightly spicy, sometimes with a hint of freshly baked bread. Alcohol made from wheat (or other grains such as rice or barley) was at one time the preference of perfumers because it has less smell than cane or grape alcohol.
Corn alcohol, the most consistently neutral in aroma, renowned for its ability to create a pure, nearly odorless base. The best one to use for delicate botanicals. Corn alcohol is the non-synthetic alcohol most widely used by commercial perfume manufacturers.
Synthetic alcohol, a petroleum product that is usually cheaper than the other alcohols and is replacing botanical alcohols in most commercial perfumes.
Most commercial fragrances are made with SD40 Alcohol, which is a 'specially denatured' ethanol, of whatever source. It is denatured with the addition of t-butyl alcohol and brucine sulfate. Other denatured alcohols that are commonly used in U.S. cosmetic products are SD Alcohols 23-A, 29, 35, 35-A, and 40-B, with the number designation indicating the specific denaturant(s) added. Other common denaturants in perfumes include denatonium benzoate, diethyl phthalate, and methyl alcohol. Some perfumers, especially those making 'natural' fragrances, claim that additives, especially methyl alcohol, are readily absorbed across the skin and can be toxic.
Carrier oils, which keep the fragrance closer to the skin than alcohols do, still are used in some perfume products, especially roll-on or dabbing types. One of their main advantages is that they are less harsh and are non-drying; and since dry skin does not hold a scent well, the oil base assists in retaining the aroma on the skin for longer than alcohol-based perfumes.
Oils were thought to have been used first as a perfume carrier medium in ancient Greece. Since oils evaporate slowly, scents of these perfumes would have been subtle, and one would have to be close to the wearer to smell them. In Greece and later in Rome, the abundance of olive oil made it the first choice oil for perfumes, though other oils such as almond were also popular. Then, as now, cheaper oils generally were better for use as carriers because they had less scent of their own to compete with the fragrance materials.
Carrier oils can be extracted from plants by one or more of five major methods, producing different qualities of oil:
1. Cold pressed. In this process, the nuts or seeds are placed in a horizontal press with a rotating screw that drives them through a barrel-shaped hollow and compresses them, forcing the oil to separate. The oil seeps out through an opening in the end of the barrel, while the 'meal' or pulp remains inside. (In centuries past, the crushing was done with stones, which is a method still used in some areas of Europe and Asia.) Due to the friction created, a slight amount of heat is produced, but not enough to damage the oil; the harder the nuts or seeds, the higher the required pressure to extract the oils and thus the higher the friction and heat. Cold-pressed oils retain all of their aroma and vitamins. The legal definition of 'cold pressed' is that the oil must be produced at a temperature below 122 degrees F, and most are actually controlled at temperatures of 80-90 degrees F. Cold pressing typically removes the least amount of oil from the seed (80-90%), making it the most expensive method available. However, balancing this is the fact that there are no solvent residues, so the oils are higher in natural colors and scents.
2. Expeller pressed. This is another mechanical method, in which the raw materials are squeezed under high pressure by a similar hydraulic, screw-type machine in a single step. The oil seeps through numerous small openings in the container. This process causes the material to heat more through friction, often to temperatures above 120-200 degrees F that destroy some nutrients. Expeller pressing obtains 87-95% of the oil from most seeds, although it is claimed that as little as 65% is removed at times, making the process more expensive overall. When expeller pressing is done at extremely slow rates, so that the resulting temperatures remain below 122 degrees F, it is termed 'low resistance' expeller pressing, and it can legally be called cold pressing. Other newer variants of this method that meet cold pressing standards are Modified Atmospheric Crushing (MAC) and Modified Atmospheric Packing (MAP), which use presses with enhanced refrigeration cooling mechanisms in an effort to minimize heat damage.
3. Refined. In this procedure, oils are first degummed by water and/or oil centrifuge separation to remove phospholipids, then refined. The refining can be done through physical steam distillation or through chemical treatment with weak alkali bases to remove free fatty acids (FFA), pigments, and contaminants such as metal ions. Chemical refining is the older, more traditional method. Modern chemical refining is done via repeated caustic soda treatments. The resulting neutral oils finally are deodorized (by vaporizing the oils and vacuum-removing volatile aromatics) and bleached (by passing them through earth or clay). The total process is called RDB for 'refined, deodorized, and bleached.' RDB processing is often done with expeller pressed oil to purify it further, improving color and texture. A final refinement that is sometimes done is winterization, which involves cooling the oil and filtering it to remove any solid crystallized portions, leaving a lighter and clearer oil.
4. Partially refined. This is similar to whole refining except that rather than the two-step degumming and neutralizing, a single neutralizing process is used to removed the FFA phosphatides.
5. Unrefined. Some experts define both cold pressed and expeller pressed oil as 'unrefined,' while others say that to be truly unrefined, no pressure can be used. Instead, the raw material must made into a paste and then washed and fine-filtered using a screen. No further processing to alter the condition (color, scent) is done. This type of oil is also sometimes called 'organic.'
Other methods also used, but less frequently, are enfleurage, infusion/maceration, solvent extraction, and CO2 extraction. Maceration is used for botanicals that do not contain sufficient oil to justify pressing methods. Solvent extraction is used with some seeds, such as canola, for which it is the most efficient, removing 97-99% of the oil. This involves soaking the raw material in ethanol, methanol, petroleum ether, or hexane to rupture the cell membranes, then filtering out the solvent. If an oil does not explicitly say 'cold pressed' or 'expeller pressed' on the bottle, then it most likely was solvent extracted.
The main disadvantage of relatively unrefined oils is that they can be less stable, even at room temperatures, meaning they are more likely to go rancid in a short period of time. Their shelf lives can sometimes be extended by adding 1% of vitamin E oil. Refined oils have a significantly longer shelf life, and they often are less expensive.
There are over 50 different carrier oils on the market that are used in perfumes. The five most often used are almond oil, apricot kernel oil, avocado oil, coconut oil, and jojoba oil.
Almond oil is a favorite carrier oil for both perfumes and aromatherapy, transporting scents better than most others. It contains vitamin E, vitamin D, calcium, and magnesium. It reduces inflammation and irritation, soothes sore or itchy skin, and moisturizes the skin and lips. The oil is reputed to delay aging processes and to lighten dark skin. It adds a silky texture to a fragrance blend. Almond oil has a very light, subtle aroma with hints of nuttiness, and it complements essential oil scents very well. The almond tree is native to the Middle East and southern Asia, but the largest producers of almonds are the U.S., Spain, and Iran.
Almond oil is obtained using solvent extraction, CO2 extraction, or low-temperature pressure systems. Refined oil, the cheapest and worst quality oil, comes from the use of solvents. CO2 extraction results in higher quality oil but at a high price. Cold pressing and expeller pressing, producing unrefined oil, are the most cost-effective options for achieving quality almond oil.
Apricot kernel oil is a good carrier. It is fine-textured and is absorbed quickly through the skin without leaving any oily residue. It contains vitamins A, C, and E. The oil has anti-inflammatory and anti-aging properties. It is not quite odorless, and it has a pale yellow color that may stain light-colored clothing. Its slight smell resembles that of vanilla essential oil. Apricot kernel oil is popular for aromatherapy use. Turkey is the largest apricot producer, followed by Iran and Uzbekistan.
The oil is extracted by cold pressing of kernels that have been soaked in water to soften the outer shells. Sometimes the kernels are pulverized into a powder or paste before the pressing. The 'press-cake' left inside the squeezing barrel is subsequently water- or steam-distilled to remove any residual oil.
Avocado oil also has a light odor as a carrier, but it blends well, and it emphasizes the scents of essential oils. It is rich in vitamins A, D, and E, and it is said to moisturize, relieve eczema, and decrease the effects of aging. Due to its rich, thick, oily consistency, it usually is highly diluted for perfumes. The avocado tree is native to Mexico and Central America. Mexico, Chile, and the Dominican Republic are the largest producers of avocados.
The process for recovering avocado oil is mechanical extraction, after the skin and stone have been removed: the flesh is ground to a paste and then slowly churned at 104-122 degrees F, the oil and water phases are separated from the pulp with a centrifuge, and then the oil is removed from the water in final high-speed 'polishing' centrifuges. The resulting 'virgin' oil is sometimes refined further.
Coconut oil is another versatile carrier oil and is the most popular among home perfumer makers. It has vitamin E and soothing fatty acids such as lauric acid, caprylic acid, and capric acid. These fatty acids are antifungal, antibacterial, and anti-oxidizing. Because of its thick consistency, it is better for lip balms and body lotions than for perfumes. Raw coconut oil is generally solid at room temperature, but it often is fractionated for sale in liquid form. It is relatively resistant to becoming rancid. The coconut palm grows in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The Philippines, Indonesia, and India are the largest coconut producers.
Dry processing of the coconut involves extracting the meat and drying it with fire, sunlight, or kilns to create 'copra.' The copra is pressed and/or dissolved with hexane solvent to produce the oil and a mash, which are then separated by filtering. Wet processing, on the other hand, uses coconut milk from the raw coconut: the proteins in the milk naturally create an emulsion of oil and water; this emulsion is pretreated with cold, heat, acids, salts, enzymes, electrolysis, or distillation, or some combination of these, and then is centrifuged. Wet processing has a lower yield and requires expensive equipment. Both of these methods produce what is termed refined oil. To obtain virgin oil, the fresh meat or milk is just cold pressed, which may then be followed by centrifuging.
Jojoba seed oil is an excellent carrier, better than all except almond, and is recommended especially for home perfume making. It moisturizes and is absorbed quickly without leaving any greasy effect. A liquid at room temperature, it is colorless and nearly odorless, and when combined with other oils it loses any of its own faint smell, emphasizing the aromas of the essential oils. The oil solidifies at cooler temperatures. It is also used in moisturizing, softening, and anti-aging products; makeup removing products; acne medications; and hair products. Jojoba is a shrub that grows in dry regions of northern Mexico and the southwestern U.S. Approximately 60% of a jojoba seed's weight is oil. Jojoba oil does not become rancid, and it has a very long shelf life. Some manufacturers sell two varieties, a golden one with a slight smell and a clear one that has been charcoal filtered to remove color and any residual odor.
The best quality jojoba oil (actually a liquid wax) is made by cold pressing or expeller pressing the dried seeds and then filtering to remove glycerin. To make refined oil, the virgin oil is bleached, filtered further, and decolorized/deodorized; this is the type most often used in making commercial cosmetic products.
Olive oil is sometimes used as a carrier oil, but its smell is stronger and it does not blend as well. Grapeseed oil is used as a base for many skin care products because of its toning and non-clogging characteristics, providing a smooth finish, but it is used less often in perfumes, especially oil-based ones. Palm oil, a semi-solid at room temperature, has very little scent and is often used in cosmetic products because of its natural antioxidants. Other carrier oils used more often in skin care products include sea buckthorn oil, macadamia nut oil, meadowfoam oil, camellia seed oil, argan oil, rosehip oil, evening primrose oil, pomegranate oil, hemp seed oil, borage oil, carrot seed oil, and neem oil. Civet oil and ambergris are still commercially available to use as oil carrier bases, but they are very expensive.
Other fluids that are sometimes added to fragrances in smaller amounts that also have some carrier properties include dipropylene glycol (DPG), glycerin, and dioctyl adipate (DOA). DPG, petrochemically derived, can dilute otherwise insoluble materials in fragrances. Benzyl benzoate and benzyl alcohol are also sometimes used to aid in the blending of materials with which it is more difficult to work. Also available are medium-chain hydrocarbon or hydrocarbon-ether solvents (MCHE), which primarily are used by a few niche perfumers to make non-aqueous, 'non-alcohol' perfumes.
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Clary Sage
Clary sage, Salvia sclarea, is a flowering evergreen shrub in the Lamiaceae (mint, deadnettle, or sage) family, growing both wild and in cultivation. With long, hairy leaves and pink or white-purple flowers, the plant reaches a height of 3-4 feet.
It is native to central Asia, the northern Mediterranean, and northern Africa, and it is now grown commercially in England, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Morocco, Russia, China, and the U.S. In the United States it is grown primarily in North Carolina, with some also produced in the Pacific Northwest. The story of production in coastal North Carolina goes back to the 1950s and early 1960s. At that time, countries of eastern Europe produced an aromatic variety of tobacco called Oriental or Asian tobacco and had formed a cartel with the goal of controlling the price of their product. Researchers at R.J. Reynolds discovered at that time that a constituent of clary sage, sclareol, is the precursor of a compound (sclareolide) that was an important flavor ingredient in the Asian tobacco. Hoping to reduce their dependence on the European cartel suppliers, R.J. Reynolds began cultivation of clary sage in coastal North Carolina. The shortage of Asian tobacco never materialized, so within a few years the tobacco company shut down their factory. However, when ambergris use in perfumery was banned in many countries in 1972, scientists discovered that sclareolide was a very good substitute for it, and in 1978 the RJR Company re-opened their clary sage factory. Large-scale commercial growing has continued there since then.
The planting of clary sage can be difficult. If the seeds are placed more than a half-inch under the top of the soil, or if they don't get the precisely right amount of moisture, they might germinate. The shrubs don't flower in the first year, so farmers plant them in the fall so that the winter cold tricks the seeds into thinking that the spring is actually year two.
Clary sage is named from the Latin salvere, meaning saved or healthy, because it was purported to preserve health and prolong life. The species name comes from the Latin word clarus for clear, because it was used for eye problems. Other names for clary sage include eyebright clary, clary wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, and common clary. This plant is not the same as the Salvia officinalis, the sage commonly used for cooking.
Perfumers use both the essential oil and the absolute of clary sage. The oil is obtained through steam distillation of the leaves and flowers, with the oil quality dependent upon the geographical origin and the freshness of the plants. Three main distilling methods are used:
Green shredded - The plant is harvested, shredded, and distilled green without drying, producing a 'vert broye' (crushed green) oil, with high concentrations of linalool and a subtle, tart, green smell.
Pre-wilted - The plants are cut and dried in the field, then shredded and distilled in warehouses, making an oil with a less green aroma.
Traditional - Plants are cut and dried in the field and shredded but with the whole stem preserved, and then they are distilled, giving the oil a sharper tone.
Much less commonly, the oil is obtained by cold expression or enfleurage.
The essential oil yield from distillation generally is 0.10-0.15%. Also produced in the distillation process is clary sage hydrosol, which can be used for scent. No synthetic form of clary sage oil is used in perfumery.
The absolute and a concrete are produced through CO2 or solvent extraction. With CO2 processing, a carrying agent is sprayed onto the fresh flowers, and they are put into an extraction kettle for continuous-circulation extraction with supercritical carbon dioxide fluid. The carbon dioxide fluid enters a separator, and extract is discharged from the bottom of the separator, leaving behind the wax-like bulk concrete. The extract is left to stand for awhile, and then the clary sage essential oil is obtained after oil and water separation. Oil extraction can also be done with hexane or ethyl alcohol as the solvent.
In perfume language, clary sage is in the aromatic herbal/balsamic olfactory family. Surprisingly, the fresh flowers in the fields are said smell like dirty socks or cat litter boxes, but the aroma changes dramatically and becomes very pleasant after distillation.
The essential oil is described as earthy and sweet to bittersweet, with nuances of lavender, musky amber, hay, and tobacco. The scent is much less pungent and bitter than that of culinary sage. It is soft, slightly fruity, and grassy-green, full and diffusive, with a slight minty or camphoraceous tone. Some writers describe it as nutty, like mild rosemary with a touch of anise. The clary sage dry-down is somewhat medicinal at times. Perfumers translating their olfactory perceptions of the fragrance into visual ones sometimes say that it would be white in color, with light green and purple accents. The aroma strength is medium to strong.
Says expert Steffen Arctander, "Clary sage oil is a colorless to pale yellow or pale olive-colored liquid, sweet-herbaceous, tenacious in odor, soft and somewhat reminiscent of ambra in its bitter-sweet undertone. Apart from the initial linalyl acetate-linalool notes, there is a very characteristic note in the odor of clary sage oil. The note remains in the dryout odor on a perfume blotter. Some perfumers describe it as tobacco-like, others as balsamic or tea-like. It also has something in common with the odor of cistus oil and Moroccan chamomile." He further describes the uses of the oil: "Clary sage oil is used in perfumery as an individual body or as a modifier for bergamot oil, lavender, etc. and for ambra notes with labdanum extracts, cistus oil, olibanum resinoid, cinnamic alcohol, nitromusks or synthetic ambergris materials, etc.; in chypre bases, fougéres, Oriental and ‘tabac’-type fragrances and in modern fantasy creations with aldehydic notes or even in woody bases. In the classical type of cologne perfumes it lends unique tenacity and acts as a very fragrant fixative, particularly in combination with labdanum products and musks. It blends beautifully with coriander, cardamom, citrus oils, lavandin and lavender, geranium oil, sandalwood oil, eugenol and derivatives, cedarwood derivatives, methylionones, phenylethyl alcohol, etc."
A very versatile scent, clary sage softens green notes and focuses florals, and it gives added body, fullness, and warmth. It is most often used in the heart notes of compositions, although it also can be included as a top note. (It is said to be a base note only in a single perfume, Laguna Homme.) Clary sage is most often included in chypre, fougere, cologne, Oriental, woody, and amber accords.
It is a complex aromatic material, with over 250 identified constituents. The major ones are linalyl acetate (up to 75%, fruity, and 'narcotic'), linalool (woody and mildly floral), and germacrene (woody, similar to ylang-ylang). These are very much like those in lavender oil. The only potential allergen that it is known to contain is geraniol.
Clary sage absolute is quite different from the essential oil, darker, woodier, sweeter, more 'muscular,' and somewhat more minty. It lacks some of the herbal notes, exhibiting more green tobacco, hay, sweet floral, and ambergris tones. It is often used to boost citrus, oakmoss, or tobacco accords, especially in masculine compositions. Clary sage absolute is completely soluble in alcohol but is not soluble in fixed carrier oils. However, it does impart its aroma to carrier oils when both the absolute and the carrier oil are heated separately before being combined.
The concrete contains a high percentage of sclareol, a raw material that is chemically manipulated (through a process analogous to coffee percolating) into sclareolide, a precursor for the commercial synthesis of ambroxan. Ambroxan is a modern perfume substitute for ambergris, providing additional complex nuances of wood, tobacco, and oakmoss and acting as a fixative in many products.
Clary sage is used widely as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Phosphates, once heavily used as cleaning agents, became infamous for choking waterways with fish-killing algae, and laundry detergent makers removed the phosphates from their products, switching to enzyme-based solutions. However, these solutions had the unwanted side effect of causing the laundry to smell bad, so the producers began to use sclereolide to counteract this and to keep the clothing smelling fresh. As little as 0.1% by volume of sclereolide can make the pleasant 'fresh' smell of laundry items last for days. And when the economy has taken hits, people have stopped buying as many new clothes, washing the ones they have more often and increasing the demand for detergents. Subsequently clary sage has become even more profitable than tobacco, and the amount of it grown in North Carolina has more than tripled in recent years.
Its use in medicines was described by Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides in the first century. The Greeks and Romans used clary sage to sooth skin irritations and alleviate redness and swelling, and different cultures have prized it for its alleged ecstatic and aphrodisiac properties. In the Middle Ages, the seeds were soaked in water, and the liquid then was used as a topical treatment for various eye ailments. It was also used at that time as a tea for colic and other intestinal complaints. In England it was a popular beverage tea before the importation of black tea from China. The 17th century Chinese valued it highly and were even said to barter one crate of clary sage leaves for three crates of tea. Clary sage has been used for centuries to treat high blood pressure, asthma and cough, sore throat, depression, cramps and muscle aches, menstrual spasms and labor pain, impotence, migraines, infections, acne, dandruff and hair loss, and dry skin. Some modern studies suggest that it has antifungal and anti-inflammatory properties.
Clary sage is also used in aromatherapy for relieving anxiety and reducing stress, to alleviate premenstrual syndrome, and to help with insomnia. It is said to promote clarity of thinking and concentration, improved memory, and better dream recall. In addition to the essential oil, clary sage often is used in tablet form for baths.
The oil is used extensively by the food and drink industry. The coriander-like notes of clary sage oil have been employed in tiny amounts as a flavor enhancer in jellies, tea, liqueurs, wines (especially muscatels and vermouths), and rum, beginning in Germany in the 15th century. It also acts as a fixative for the flavors of foods and drinks. Clary sage was used as a hops substitute for beer brewing in the Middle Ages in Britain; beers infused with clary sage were reputed to have increased intoxicating powers, but unfortunately they also produced severe headaches. The young plant tops have been used in many cultures in soups, stews, and omelets, and the leaves have been chopped into salads. A traditional 17th century recipe instructs that the leaves be dipped in a batter, fried in butter, and served as a side dish for meats.
Masculine fragrances with significant clary sage notes include:
Ajmal Shadow Grey
Alfred Dunhill for Men, Edition, X-Centric
Aramis for Men, Tobacco Reserve
Armanai Acqua di Gio Essenza
Aubusson Man Intense
Azzaro pour Homme, Amber Fever, Sport
Bentley for Men Intense
Bvlgari Aqva
Cacharel pour Homme
Chanel Allure Sport, Antaeus, Egoiste Platinum
Chevignon Heritage
Christian Audigier Ed Hardy
Comme des Garcons Ouarzazate
Crown Perfumery Spiced Limes
Davidoff Champion, Zino
Dolce & Gabbana Pour Homme
D.S. & Durga Cowboy Grass
Dzintars Hit Red, Sport Record
Emanuel Ungaro for Men
Ermenegildo Zegna Essenza 2007, Essenza di Zegna, Milan
Givenchy Xeryus
Henry Jacques Greco, Roi sans Equipage
Herban Cowboy Dusk
Hermès H24
Hollister Break Line
Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male
Jil Sander Scent 79 Man
Joseph Abboud Black Linen
Lacoste L.12.12 Bleu Powerful
Lancome Balafre
La Rive Elegant
Martin Margiela Jazz Club
The Merchant of Venice Dalmatian Sage
Monsieur Rochas
Montblanc Emblem
Oriflame Born to Fly, Espionage, Friends World, Leader, Ultimate
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Prada Luna Rossa
Ralph Lauren Chaps, Polo Red (various)
Renato Balestra Caesar
Roger & Gallet l'Homme Menthe
St. James of London Cedarwood & Clarysage
Salvador Dali pour Homme
Salvatore Ferragamo Acqua Essenziale Colonia
Ted Lapidus Supreme Desire
Tuscany per Uomo Forte
Valentino Uomo Intense
Versace pour Homme
Victor Original
Yves Rocher Bois de Sauge
Yves St. Laurent Body Kouros
Clary sage, Salvia sclarea, is a flowering evergreen shrub in the Lamiaceae (mint, deadnettle, or sage) family, growing both wild and in cultivation. With long, hairy leaves and pink or white-purple flowers, the plant reaches a height of 3-4 feet.
It is native to central Asia, the northern Mediterranean, and northern Africa, and it is now grown commercially in England, France, Italy, Bulgaria, Morocco, Russia, China, and the U.S. In the United States it is grown primarily in North Carolina, with some also produced in the Pacific Northwest. The story of production in coastal North Carolina goes back to the 1950s and early 1960s. At that time, countries of eastern Europe produced an aromatic variety of tobacco called Oriental or Asian tobacco and had formed a cartel with the goal of controlling the price of their product. Researchers at R.J. Reynolds discovered at that time that a constituent of clary sage, sclareol, is the precursor of a compound (sclareolide) that was an important flavor ingredient in the Asian tobacco. Hoping to reduce their dependence on the European cartel suppliers, R.J. Reynolds began cultivation of clary sage in coastal North Carolina. The shortage of Asian tobacco never materialized, so within a few years the tobacco company shut down their factory. However, when ambergris use in perfumery was banned in many countries in 1972, scientists discovered that sclareolide was a very good substitute for it, and in 1978 the RJR Company re-opened their clary sage factory. Large-scale commercial growing has continued there since then.
The planting of clary sage can be difficult. If the seeds are placed more than a half-inch under the top of the soil, or if they don't get the precisely right amount of moisture, they might germinate. The shrubs don't flower in the first year, so farmers plant them in the fall so that the winter cold tricks the seeds into thinking that the spring is actually year two.
Clary sage is named from the Latin salvere, meaning saved or healthy, because it was purported to preserve health and prolong life. The species name comes from the Latin word clarus for clear, because it was used for eye problems. Other names for clary sage include eyebright clary, clary wort, muscatel sage, clear eye, and common clary. This plant is not the same as the Salvia officinalis, the sage commonly used for cooking.
Perfumers use both the essential oil and the absolute of clary sage. The oil is obtained through steam distillation of the leaves and flowers, with the oil quality dependent upon the geographical origin and the freshness of the plants. Three main distilling methods are used:
Green shredded - The plant is harvested, shredded, and distilled green without drying, producing a 'vert broye' (crushed green) oil, with high concentrations of linalool and a subtle, tart, green smell.
Pre-wilted - The plants are cut and dried in the field, then shredded and distilled in warehouses, making an oil with a less green aroma.
Traditional - Plants are cut and dried in the field and shredded but with the whole stem preserved, and then they are distilled, giving the oil a sharper tone.
Much less commonly, the oil is obtained by cold expression or enfleurage.
The essential oil yield from distillation generally is 0.10-0.15%. Also produced in the distillation process is clary sage hydrosol, which can be used for scent. No synthetic form of clary sage oil is used in perfumery.
The absolute and a concrete are produced through CO2 or solvent extraction. With CO2 processing, a carrying agent is sprayed onto the fresh flowers, and they are put into an extraction kettle for continuous-circulation extraction with supercritical carbon dioxide fluid. The carbon dioxide fluid enters a separator, and extract is discharged from the bottom of the separator, leaving behind the wax-like bulk concrete. The extract is left to stand for awhile, and then the clary sage essential oil is obtained after oil and water separation. Oil extraction can also be done with hexane or ethyl alcohol as the solvent.
In perfume language, clary sage is in the aromatic herbal/balsamic olfactory family. Surprisingly, the fresh flowers in the fields are said smell like dirty socks or cat litter boxes, but the aroma changes dramatically and becomes very pleasant after distillation.
The essential oil is described as earthy and sweet to bittersweet, with nuances of lavender, musky amber, hay, and tobacco. The scent is much less pungent and bitter than that of culinary sage. It is soft, slightly fruity, and grassy-green, full and diffusive, with a slight minty or camphoraceous tone. Some writers describe it as nutty, like mild rosemary with a touch of anise. The clary sage dry-down is somewhat medicinal at times. Perfumers translating their olfactory perceptions of the fragrance into visual ones sometimes say that it would be white in color, with light green and purple accents. The aroma strength is medium to strong.
Says expert Steffen Arctander, "Clary sage oil is a colorless to pale yellow or pale olive-colored liquid, sweet-herbaceous, tenacious in odor, soft and somewhat reminiscent of ambra in its bitter-sweet undertone. Apart from the initial linalyl acetate-linalool notes, there is a very characteristic note in the odor of clary sage oil. The note remains in the dryout odor on a perfume blotter. Some perfumers describe it as tobacco-like, others as balsamic or tea-like. It also has something in common with the odor of cistus oil and Moroccan chamomile." He further describes the uses of the oil: "Clary sage oil is used in perfumery as an individual body or as a modifier for bergamot oil, lavender, etc. and for ambra notes with labdanum extracts, cistus oil, olibanum resinoid, cinnamic alcohol, nitromusks or synthetic ambergris materials, etc.; in chypre bases, fougéres, Oriental and ‘tabac’-type fragrances and in modern fantasy creations with aldehydic notes or even in woody bases. In the classical type of cologne perfumes it lends unique tenacity and acts as a very fragrant fixative, particularly in combination with labdanum products and musks. It blends beautifully with coriander, cardamom, citrus oils, lavandin and lavender, geranium oil, sandalwood oil, eugenol and derivatives, cedarwood derivatives, methylionones, phenylethyl alcohol, etc."
A very versatile scent, clary sage softens green notes and focuses florals, and it gives added body, fullness, and warmth. It is most often used in the heart notes of compositions, although it also can be included as a top note. (It is said to be a base note only in a single perfume, Laguna Homme.) Clary sage is most often included in chypre, fougere, cologne, Oriental, woody, and amber accords.
It is a complex aromatic material, with over 250 identified constituents. The major ones are linalyl acetate (up to 75%, fruity, and 'narcotic'), linalool (woody and mildly floral), and germacrene (woody, similar to ylang-ylang). These are very much like those in lavender oil. The only potential allergen that it is known to contain is geraniol.
Clary sage absolute is quite different from the essential oil, darker, woodier, sweeter, more 'muscular,' and somewhat more minty. It lacks some of the herbal notes, exhibiting more green tobacco, hay, sweet floral, and ambergris tones. It is often used to boost citrus, oakmoss, or tobacco accords, especially in masculine compositions. Clary sage absolute is completely soluble in alcohol but is not soluble in fixed carrier oils. However, it does impart its aroma to carrier oils when both the absolute and the carrier oil are heated separately before being combined.
The concrete contains a high percentage of sclareol, a raw material that is chemically manipulated (through a process analogous to coffee percolating) into sclareolide, a precursor for the commercial synthesis of ambroxan. Ambroxan is a modern perfume substitute for ambergris, providing additional complex nuances of wood, tobacco, and oakmoss and acting as a fixative in many products.
Clary sage is used widely as a fragrance component and fixative in soaps, detergents, and cosmetics. Phosphates, once heavily used as cleaning agents, became infamous for choking waterways with fish-killing algae, and laundry detergent makers removed the phosphates from their products, switching to enzyme-based solutions. However, these solutions had the unwanted side effect of causing the laundry to smell bad, so the producers began to use sclereolide to counteract this and to keep the clothing smelling fresh. As little as 0.1% by volume of sclereolide can make the pleasant 'fresh' smell of laundry items last for days. And when the economy has taken hits, people have stopped buying as many new clothes, washing the ones they have more often and increasing the demand for detergents. Subsequently clary sage has become even more profitable than tobacco, and the amount of it grown in North Carolina has more than tripled in recent years.
Its use in medicines was described by Pliny the Elder and Dioscorides in the first century. The Greeks and Romans used clary sage to sooth skin irritations and alleviate redness and swelling, and different cultures have prized it for its alleged ecstatic and aphrodisiac properties. In the Middle Ages, the seeds were soaked in water, and the liquid then was used as a topical treatment for various eye ailments. It was also used at that time as a tea for colic and other intestinal complaints. In England it was a popular beverage tea before the importation of black tea from China. The 17th century Chinese valued it highly and were even said to barter one crate of clary sage leaves for three crates of tea. Clary sage has been used for centuries to treat high blood pressure, asthma and cough, sore throat, depression, cramps and muscle aches, menstrual spasms and labor pain, impotence, migraines, infections, acne, dandruff and hair loss, and dry skin. Some modern studies suggest that it has antifungal and anti-inflammatory properties.
Clary sage is also used in aromatherapy for relieving anxiety and reducing stress, to alleviate premenstrual syndrome, and to help with insomnia. It is said to promote clarity of thinking and concentration, improved memory, and better dream recall. In addition to the essential oil, clary sage often is used in tablet form for baths.
The oil is used extensively by the food and drink industry. The coriander-like notes of clary sage oil have been employed in tiny amounts as a flavor enhancer in jellies, tea, liqueurs, wines (especially muscatels and vermouths), and rum, beginning in Germany in the 15th century. It also acts as a fixative for the flavors of foods and drinks. Clary sage was used as a hops substitute for beer brewing in the Middle Ages in Britain; beers infused with clary sage were reputed to have increased intoxicating powers, but unfortunately they also produced severe headaches. The young plant tops have been used in many cultures in soups, stews, and omelets, and the leaves have been chopped into salads. A traditional 17th century recipe instructs that the leaves be dipped in a batter, fried in butter, and served as a side dish for meats.
Masculine fragrances with significant clary sage notes include:
Ajmal Shadow Grey
Alfred Dunhill for Men, Edition, X-Centric
Aramis for Men, Tobacco Reserve
Armanai Acqua di Gio Essenza
Aubusson Man Intense
Azzaro pour Homme, Amber Fever, Sport
Bentley for Men Intense
Bvlgari Aqva
Cacharel pour Homme
Chanel Allure Sport, Antaeus, Egoiste Platinum
Chevignon Heritage
Christian Audigier Ed Hardy
Comme des Garcons Ouarzazate
Crown Perfumery Spiced Limes
Davidoff Champion, Zino
Dolce & Gabbana Pour Homme
D.S. & Durga Cowboy Grass
Dzintars Hit Red, Sport Record
Emanuel Ungaro for Men
Ermenegildo Zegna Essenza 2007, Essenza di Zegna, Milan
Givenchy Xeryus
Henry Jacques Greco, Roi sans Equipage
Herban Cowboy Dusk
Hermès H24
Hollister Break Line
Jean Paul Gaultier Ultra Male
Jil Sander Scent 79 Man
Joseph Abboud Black Linen
Lacoste L.12.12 Bleu Powerful
Lancome Balafre
La Rive Elegant
Martin Margiela Jazz Club
The Merchant of Venice Dalmatian Sage
Monsieur Rochas
Montblanc Emblem
Oriflame Born to Fly, Espionage, Friends World, Leader, Ultimate
Paco Rabanne pour Homme
Prada Luna Rossa
Ralph Lauren Chaps, Polo Red (various)
Renato Balestra Caesar
Roger & Gallet l'Homme Menthe
St. James of London Cedarwood & Clarysage
Salvador Dali pour Homme
Salvatore Ferragamo Acqua Essenziale Colonia
Ted Lapidus Supreme Desire
Tuscany per Uomo Forte
Valentino Uomo Intense
Versace pour Homme
Victor Original
Yves Rocher Bois de Sauge
Yves St. Laurent Body Kouros
churchilllafemme
TSC Yoda
Aquatic/Ozonic/Marine/Oceanic/Fresh
This fragrance category is another one in which the language of perfumery is somewhat muddled and confusing. Many writers combine all of these notes together into one family and call all of them by a single name such as 'Aquatic' or 'Marine' or 'Oceanic,' while others separate them into different groups. And still others divide this Aquatic lineage into several subgroups depending upon their dominant characters, such as Aquatic Aromatic, Aquatic Woody, Floral Oceanic-Aquatic, Aromatic Oceanic-Aquatic, and Woody Oceanic-Aquatic.
These fragrances generally provide a watery, fresh-citrusy, limpid sense with a subtle beginning and a feeling of lightness and what might be termed timidity. The tone frequently is characterized by a combination of 'watery fruit' (watermelon, cucumber, rhubarb) and gentle florals like water hyacinth, along with touches of citrus and mint or peppermint.
Because there is so much confusion and overlap regarding these categories of scent, I will try to discuss them in a way that approaches from specific different angles or viewpoints. Some of the same pefume fragrances appear in more than one area because of this, but I think the overall meanings will be clear.
Aquatic
A general description of aquatic fragrances is that they "take the feeling of that perfect beach day and put it in a bottle, capturing the essence of waves crashing on the shore," evoking a sense of a water environment, but not all of them salty. They are clean, light and crisp, helping you to feel cool on hot summer days. They have fragrance notes simulating aromas of seawater or freshwater, with a slight suggestion of mint. Their aromas mix in a complex manner to provide a smell that is a 'balanced combination of lightness and heaviness.' Some aquatic fragrances can have tremendous sillage and longevity due to their marine-based accords. They generally do not follow the traditional pyramid structure and are much more linear in their life cycles.
Aquatic colognes first appeared on the market with the release of Davidoff Cool Water (1988) and Christian Dior Dune (1991), heralding a wave of new fragrances which used recent advances in synthetic technology to create scents distinguished by marine-like tones. They were created primarily to have androgynous properties, appealing to both sexes. This ability to mimic salty, oceanic smells was due to new chemicals such as calone 1951, discovered and synthesized by chemists at a division of Pfizer in 1951 and first marketed in 1966. Calone had a fresh, green, metallic smell, a scent of watermelon and sea spray, with notes of geranium and amber and a light touch of oyster. For the next 20 years, while people preferred perfumes with powerful and opulent notes, calone was just a marginal perfume ingredient, used mainly in trace amounts for floral accords. However, when its patent expired, other perfumers started working more creatively with it and other similar synthetics, and their use in fragrances exploded. In 1992, Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, wanting "a fragrance that smells like water," created l'Eau d'Issey, a marine fragrance which very quickly became a global success.
Other more recent aquatic-marine synthetics include helional, used in soaps and laundry detergents as well as perfumes; aquozone, a scent created by Firmenich and included as a top note in Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio Profundo, melonal from Givaudan (described as "green, sweet, oily, powerful, melon rind-like, with cucumber and floral nuances"), floralozone ("fresh, clean, aldehydic, with jasmine, reminiscent of ocean breezes"), algenone (with white flower, watery-soapy, and animalic facets), and transluzone (a calone derivative, somewhat less marine and more floral). Similar newer synthetics include cascalone (ozonic, aldehydic, more intense than calone), aldolone (also ozonic and aldehydic and easier to use because it balances easily), and azurone (stronger and more diffusive). Compounds quite similar to the original calone but with a much more intense odor include calone 124 (fruity and with no oyster note) and calone 219 (greener and metallic).
However, synthesis is not the only way that aquatic facets are added; some natural plants, such as lotus, blue cypress, sea fennel, algae, and oakmoss, provide marine-salty notes to compositions, and fruits are sometimes added to bring an additional aqueous touch.
With the popularity of aquatics in the 1990s, perfume houses saw an opportunity to dilute their fragrances with cheap alcohol and call them 'aquatic' variants to appeal to the prevailing taste of the time, while charging the same high prices. But in the first decade of the 21st century, their popularity was overtaken by the 'gourmands' and 'fruity florals,' and over the last 10 years of increased economic hard times they have definitely become less popular. Many of the aquatic fragrances have now been reformulated to decrease their 'marine freshness,' and some of them, such as Calvin Klein Escape, have lost it entirely.
Subgroups:
- Aquatic Aromatic scents, with fresh watery accords, are quite numerous. Aromatic Oceanic-Aquatic fragrances are similar but have stronger tones of ocean seawater and beach, with nuances of drying seashells and sea grasses.
These groups include Abercrombie & Fitch Summer and Fierce Blue, Al-Rehab Orient, Avon Homem Acqua and Exploration, Azzaro Chrome Aqua and Aqua Frost, Brut Aquatonic and Oceans, Burberry Sport Ice for Men, Bvlgari Aqva pour Homme, Calvin Klein Eternity for Men Summer 2006 and 2016, Carolina Herrera Aqua, Cartier Declaration l'Eau, Davidoff Cool Water (and variations), Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Swimming in Lipari, Ermenegildo Zegna Z Fresh, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio (and variations), Givenchy Insense Ultramarine Wild Surf and Pi Neo Tropical Paradise, Hugo Boss Iced and Now, Joop! Homme Sport, L'Occitane en Provence Verdon and Bois Flotte, Lacoste L.12.12 Eau Fraiche and Live, Louis Cardin La Viola Homme and Screen, Nautica Aqua Rush and Blue, Pecksniff's Aquamarine, Penhaligon's Blasted Heath, Perry Ellis Aqua, Ralph Lauren Polo Deep Blue, Rasasi Hawas for Him, Tommy Bahama Maritime for Him and Set Sail Martinique, Truefitt & Hill Clubman, Williams Aqua Velva Ice Blue and Ice Sport, Yardley Legacy, Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Cologne Bleue, Zara 10.0 and Deep Blue Sea, and many others.
- Aquatic Woody compositions also are common. They include wood notes in addition to the aquatic ones and often are rich and exotic, with tints of sun-warmed wet, decaying woods. The related Woody Oceanic-Aquatic have additional accords of seawater and sometimes seaweed. Common notes in the latter group include lemon and bergamot, as well as amber, cedar, and sandalwood.
Those for men in these groups include Dunhill Desire Blue Ocean, Antonio Puig Agua Brava Sea Power, Aramis Always for Him, Avon Aqua for Him, Azzaro Bright Visit and Chrome Sport, Bentley for Men Azure, Brut Revolution, Burberry Brit Splash for Men, Bvlgari Aqva Amara, Calvin Klein Eternity for Men Summer 2013, Carolina Herrera 212 Men Aqua, Cartier Declaration Bois Bleu, Davidoff Cool Water Wave, Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Eau Intense pour Homme, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio Absolu Instinct and Acqua di Gio Blue Edition, Guerlain l'Homme Ideal Sport, Hugo Boss Pure, Issey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey pour Homme, Jil Sander Sun Bath Men, Lalique Encre Noire Sport, Nautica Voyage, Paco Rabanne Invictus, Pino Silvestre Mediterraneo, Ralph Lauren Holiday Bear Edition Polo Blue, Rasasi Hope Men, Thierry Mugler Alien Man Mirage, Tommy Bahama Very Cool, Versace Man Eau Fraiche, Yves St. Laurent Kouros Energizing 2010 and Kouros Tattoo, and Zara Dark Crude.
- Floral Aquatic compositions have notes of aquatic flowers (such as water lily, pickerel weed, water hawthorn, and lotus) and herbs (watercress, pennywort, mint, water spinach) in addition to those of water. Floral Oceanic-Aquatic perfumes also have seawater tones.
Fragrances in these two groups are much more common in women's products, but the few for men include Ajmal Blu, Atelier Ulric Classic for Men, Nadia Z Japanese Spring, Ottaniqo Falconer Forest, Phytoderm Domini, Reminiscence Rem pour Homme, Roberto Capucci Nuance, Royal Hawaiian Kane Sport, and VFiles Homme.
Among the perfumes with an oceanic tone are some that could be termed 'cool oceanic,' a relatively new variety with a wider scheme that might include the scent of fresh linen or suggestions of clean, snowy mountains. Examples are the various Davidoff Cool Water editions, Narciso Rodriguez Essence, Creed Himalaya and Silver Mountain Water, and Abdul Samad Al Qurashi Oceanic Fresh.
Ozonic
Another group that is similar to Aquatics is the Ozonic fragrances. The word 'ozonic' is used to describe aroma chemicals that are meant to mimic the smell of clean fresh air, frequently described as the smell of the air right after a thunderstorm. They have light, somewhat elusive, marine but earthy notes suggesting recent rain or fresh morning dew. Usually they are included among the base notes of a composition, where they provide crispness and coolness that often simulates sea air. They typically are mixed with floral, fruity, or woodsy notes to accent, brighten, and lift them. Ozonic perfumes have gentle, alluring scents that are not overpowering even during warm times when the perfume evaporates easily. They are extremely versatile, appropriate for either casual or formal occasions.
There are three major components to the classic ozonic smell.
First is ozone chemical itself, an unstable molecule composed of three oxygen atoms. It is created when an electrical charge from lightning splits atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen molecules into separate atoms, some recombining into dinitrogen oxide or nitric oxide, which in turn reacts with other atmospheric chemicals to produce O3.
The second factor is petrichor, an earthy aroma produced when rain falls on dry soil. This smell comes from an oil exuded by certain plants during dry periods, during which the oil is absorbed into clay-based soils and rocks. During rain striking the ground, this oil is released into the air with the petrichor odor.
And finally, the third component is the musty aroma of geosmin, a metabolic by-product of bacteria or blue-green algae in damp earth. Together these three factors produce the distinctive overall ozonic scent.
The term ozonic is somewhat divisive, with some experts proposing that it is just the same general group as the Aquatic family and Oceanic group. Others distinguish among them, saying that Aquatic and Oceanic refer specifically to beach, watery, or 'wet flower' notes, reminiscent of a pond, lake, or sea (usually due to inclusion of a synthetic like calone, such as in Acqua di Gio and Bvlgari Aqva); while ozonic scents, on the other hand, are more airy, often with a piercing dry note that is like inhaling very cold air or oxygen (a quality of Lanvin Oxygen or Aqua Quorum). In addition, increasing numbers of people object to any use of the term 'ozonic' in perfumery since ozone itself, at high enough concentrations, is harmful to the respiratory tract and actually has nothing to do directly with fresh, clean air. In fact, the smell of the air after a thunderstorm has passed over a city has more to do with chemical reactions with air and ground pollution than with factors from the earth.
Masculine fragrances with significant Aquatic/Ozonic/Marine accords:
(with the predominant character in parentheses)
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct (watery/airy)
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Fico di Amalfi (marine), Arancia di Capri (watery/airy)
Amouage Portrayl Man (ozonic)
Avon Maxx, Wild Country Musk, 015 London (ozonic)
Azzaro Chrome Intense (ozonic), Chrome United (watery/airy)
Bath & Bodny Works Ocean (ozonic)
Bentley Azure (ozonic), Silverlake (watery/airy), Momentum Unlimited (watery/airy)
Bvlgari Aqva Atlantiqve (marine), Aqva Marine (marine), Aqva Amara
By Kilian Roses on Ice (ozonic)
Calvin Klein Eternity Air (ozonic), One Summer 2019 (watery/airy), Eternity, Eternity Aqua
Caron Nuit Fraiche (ozonic)
Christian Dior Balade Sauvage (ozonic)
Creed Green Irish Tweed (ozonic), Virgin Island Water (marine), Millesime Imperial
Davidoff Cool Water Wave (marine), Cool Water
Diesel Fuel for Life He Summer (ozonic)
Dior Fahrenheit (ozonic)
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Sun (ozonic), Light Blue Intense (watery/airy)
Dunhill Pure (watery/airy)
Ermenegildo Zegna Uomo (ozonic)
Faberlic Favorite
Fendi Fan di Acqua
Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio Profondo, AdG, AdG Essenze, AdG Profumo
Hugo Boss Bottled United
Isssey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey Sport (watery/airy)
Jil Sander Sun Men Fizz (ozonic)
Jo Malone Wood Sage & Sea Salt (marine)
Lalique Hommage a l'Homme (ozonic)
Lanvin Eclat d'Arpege (watery/airy)
Michael Kors Extreme Sky (ozonic)
Narciso Rodriguez (ozonic)
Nautica Voyage
Paco Rabanne 1 Million Luck (ozonic), Invictus Aqua
Paul Smith Essential (ozonic)
Porsche Design Palladium (ozonic)
Ralph Lauren Polo Blue (watery/airy), Polo Sport
Rasasi Hawas (watery/airy)
Salvatore Ferragamo Uomo Urban Feel (ozonic), Acqua Essenziale
Tom Ford Oud Minerale
Tommy Bahama St. Barts
Versace pour Homme (watery/airy)
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme le Parfum (ozonic), l'Homme Libre (watery/airy)
Zara Aquatic Mind (marine), Night (marine), Unbreakable
These are just some of the most popular ones. In addition, there are a lot of unisex fragrances, too many to list.
Fresh
A closely related fragrance family - or simply a different approach to classification - which many incorporate into the Aquatic family, is the Fresh family. It is quite varied and somewhat poorly defined, ranging from fruity, green, aquatic, and citrus through aromatic. Unlike other categories, it is not based on a single defining characteristic but rather on its overall fresh, lively, invigorating quality. Many but not all of the accords in this family are found primarily in summer perfumes.
Types of notes:
- Fresh fruity notes often include those of peaches, pears, apples, guava, mango, pineapple, melon, and passion fruit, lusher than citrus notes. Their freshness is softened with a light, sensual touch of sweetness.
- Fresh green notes include green leaves (such as violet leaf), tea leaves, vines, and fresh cut grass. Clean and like a breath of fresh air through an open window, occasionally with a whisper of fruit, they evoke the sense of a cool, shaded spot. They are longer lasting than others in the Fresh family.
- Fresh aquatic notes include marine, calone, seaweed, and driftwood. The most refreshing of the groups, these are the ones most often also termed 'ozonic,' displaying synthetic ingredients identified and developed through headspace technology. The majority of these scents are created for men.
- Fresh citruses include lemon, neroli, mandarin, lime, bergamot, and grapefruit. With simple elegance and crispness ('like a perfectly-ironed white shirt in a bottle'), these are often used in unisex compositions. They tend to be short-lived on the skin, especially on warm days.
- Fresh aromatic notes include thyme, tarragon, rosemary, eucalyptus, lavender, and sage. Airy and outdoorsy, more masculine than feminine, these notes blend well with citruses.
Popular examples of fragrances that might be included in the Fresh group (some in other families, as well):
Acqua di Gio Profumo
Azzaro Chrome Legend
Bath & Body Works White Citrus
Burberry Weekend
Bvlgari Man in Black, Wood Neroli, Aqua Amara
Byredo Mister Marvelous
Calvin Klein Eternity Aqua, CK One
Chanel Bleu, Allure Sport Extreme
Christian Dior Sauvage
Creed Orange Spice, Aventus, Virgin Island Water
Diesel Only the Brave
Dolce & Gabbana The One Royal Night, Light Blue Intense
Dunhill Icon Absolute, Desire Black
Giorgio Armani Code Ice
Gucci Guilty
Hermes Terre d'Hermes
Hugo Boss The Scent Absolute, Hugo Element
Jimmy Choo Man
Jo Malone Pomegranate Noir
Kenneth Cole Mankind
Kenzo 'Eau pour HommeLanvin l'Homme
Lanvin l'Homme
Liz Claiborne Curve
Nautica Voyage
Nikos Sculpture pour Homme
Paco Rabanne 1 Million Intense
Prada Luna Rossa Sport, l'Homme
Puig Yacht Man Blue
Ralph Lauren Polo Red Extreme
S.T. Dupont pour Homme
Shisedo Zen
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino Aqua
Versace Dylan Blue
Yves St. Laurent Y, l'Homme Ultime
This fragrance category is another one in which the language of perfumery is somewhat muddled and confusing. Many writers combine all of these notes together into one family and call all of them by a single name such as 'Aquatic' or 'Marine' or 'Oceanic,' while others separate them into different groups. And still others divide this Aquatic lineage into several subgroups depending upon their dominant characters, such as Aquatic Aromatic, Aquatic Woody, Floral Oceanic-Aquatic, Aromatic Oceanic-Aquatic, and Woody Oceanic-Aquatic.
These fragrances generally provide a watery, fresh-citrusy, limpid sense with a subtle beginning and a feeling of lightness and what might be termed timidity. The tone frequently is characterized by a combination of 'watery fruit' (watermelon, cucumber, rhubarb) and gentle florals like water hyacinth, along with touches of citrus and mint or peppermint.
Because there is so much confusion and overlap regarding these categories of scent, I will try to discuss them in a way that approaches from specific different angles or viewpoints. Some of the same pefume fragrances appear in more than one area because of this, but I think the overall meanings will be clear.
Aquatic
A general description of aquatic fragrances is that they "take the feeling of that perfect beach day and put it in a bottle, capturing the essence of waves crashing on the shore," evoking a sense of a water environment, but not all of them salty. They are clean, light and crisp, helping you to feel cool on hot summer days. They have fragrance notes simulating aromas of seawater or freshwater, with a slight suggestion of mint. Their aromas mix in a complex manner to provide a smell that is a 'balanced combination of lightness and heaviness.' Some aquatic fragrances can have tremendous sillage and longevity due to their marine-based accords. They generally do not follow the traditional pyramid structure and are much more linear in their life cycles.
Aquatic colognes first appeared on the market with the release of Davidoff Cool Water (1988) and Christian Dior Dune (1991), heralding a wave of new fragrances which used recent advances in synthetic technology to create scents distinguished by marine-like tones. They were created primarily to have androgynous properties, appealing to both sexes. This ability to mimic salty, oceanic smells was due to new chemicals such as calone 1951, discovered and synthesized by chemists at a division of Pfizer in 1951 and first marketed in 1966. Calone had a fresh, green, metallic smell, a scent of watermelon and sea spray, with notes of geranium and amber and a light touch of oyster. For the next 20 years, while people preferred perfumes with powerful and opulent notes, calone was just a marginal perfume ingredient, used mainly in trace amounts for floral accords. However, when its patent expired, other perfumers started working more creatively with it and other similar synthetics, and their use in fragrances exploded. In 1992, Japanese fashion designer Issey Miyake, wanting "a fragrance that smells like water," created l'Eau d'Issey, a marine fragrance which very quickly became a global success.
Other more recent aquatic-marine synthetics include helional, used in soaps and laundry detergents as well as perfumes; aquozone, a scent created by Firmenich and included as a top note in Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio Profundo, melonal from Givaudan (described as "green, sweet, oily, powerful, melon rind-like, with cucumber and floral nuances"), floralozone ("fresh, clean, aldehydic, with jasmine, reminiscent of ocean breezes"), algenone (with white flower, watery-soapy, and animalic facets), and transluzone (a calone derivative, somewhat less marine and more floral). Similar newer synthetics include cascalone (ozonic, aldehydic, more intense than calone), aldolone (also ozonic and aldehydic and easier to use because it balances easily), and azurone (stronger and more diffusive). Compounds quite similar to the original calone but with a much more intense odor include calone 124 (fruity and with no oyster note) and calone 219 (greener and metallic).
However, synthesis is not the only way that aquatic facets are added; some natural plants, such as lotus, blue cypress, sea fennel, algae, and oakmoss, provide marine-salty notes to compositions, and fruits are sometimes added to bring an additional aqueous touch.
With the popularity of aquatics in the 1990s, perfume houses saw an opportunity to dilute their fragrances with cheap alcohol and call them 'aquatic' variants to appeal to the prevailing taste of the time, while charging the same high prices. But in the first decade of the 21st century, their popularity was overtaken by the 'gourmands' and 'fruity florals,' and over the last 10 years of increased economic hard times they have definitely become less popular. Many of the aquatic fragrances have now been reformulated to decrease their 'marine freshness,' and some of them, such as Calvin Klein Escape, have lost it entirely.
Subgroups:
- Aquatic Aromatic scents, with fresh watery accords, are quite numerous. Aromatic Oceanic-Aquatic fragrances are similar but have stronger tones of ocean seawater and beach, with nuances of drying seashells and sea grasses.
These groups include Abercrombie & Fitch Summer and Fierce Blue, Al-Rehab Orient, Avon Homem Acqua and Exploration, Azzaro Chrome Aqua and Aqua Frost, Brut Aquatonic and Oceans, Burberry Sport Ice for Men, Bvlgari Aqva pour Homme, Calvin Klein Eternity for Men Summer 2006 and 2016, Carolina Herrera Aqua, Cartier Declaration l'Eau, Davidoff Cool Water (and variations), Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Swimming in Lipari, Ermenegildo Zegna Z Fresh, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio (and variations), Givenchy Insense Ultramarine Wild Surf and Pi Neo Tropical Paradise, Hugo Boss Iced and Now, Joop! Homme Sport, L'Occitane en Provence Verdon and Bois Flotte, Lacoste L.12.12 Eau Fraiche and Live, Louis Cardin La Viola Homme and Screen, Nautica Aqua Rush and Blue, Pecksniff's Aquamarine, Penhaligon's Blasted Heath, Perry Ellis Aqua, Ralph Lauren Polo Deep Blue, Rasasi Hawas for Him, Tommy Bahama Maritime for Him and Set Sail Martinique, Truefitt & Hill Clubman, Williams Aqua Velva Ice Blue and Ice Sport, Yardley Legacy, Yves St. Laurent l'Homme Cologne Bleue, Zara 10.0 and Deep Blue Sea, and many others.
- Aquatic Woody compositions also are common. They include wood notes in addition to the aquatic ones and often are rich and exotic, with tints of sun-warmed wet, decaying woods. The related Woody Oceanic-Aquatic have additional accords of seawater and sometimes seaweed. Common notes in the latter group include lemon and bergamot, as well as amber, cedar, and sandalwood.
Those for men in these groups include Dunhill Desire Blue Ocean, Antonio Puig Agua Brava Sea Power, Aramis Always for Him, Avon Aqua for Him, Azzaro Bright Visit and Chrome Sport, Bentley for Men Azure, Brut Revolution, Burberry Brit Splash for Men, Bvlgari Aqva Amara, Calvin Klein Eternity for Men Summer 2013, Carolina Herrera 212 Men Aqua, Cartier Declaration Bois Bleu, Davidoff Cool Water Wave, Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Eau Intense pour Homme, Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio Absolu Instinct and Acqua di Gio Blue Edition, Guerlain l'Homme Ideal Sport, Hugo Boss Pure, Issey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey pour Homme, Jil Sander Sun Bath Men, Lalique Encre Noire Sport, Nautica Voyage, Paco Rabanne Invictus, Pino Silvestre Mediterraneo, Ralph Lauren Holiday Bear Edition Polo Blue, Rasasi Hope Men, Thierry Mugler Alien Man Mirage, Tommy Bahama Very Cool, Versace Man Eau Fraiche, Yves St. Laurent Kouros Energizing 2010 and Kouros Tattoo, and Zara Dark Crude.
- Floral Aquatic compositions have notes of aquatic flowers (such as water lily, pickerel weed, water hawthorn, and lotus) and herbs (watercress, pennywort, mint, water spinach) in addition to those of water. Floral Oceanic-Aquatic perfumes also have seawater tones.
Fragrances in these two groups are much more common in women's products, but the few for men include Ajmal Blu, Atelier Ulric Classic for Men, Nadia Z Japanese Spring, Ottaniqo Falconer Forest, Phytoderm Domini, Reminiscence Rem pour Homme, Roberto Capucci Nuance, Royal Hawaiian Kane Sport, and VFiles Homme.
Among the perfumes with an oceanic tone are some that could be termed 'cool oceanic,' a relatively new variety with a wider scheme that might include the scent of fresh linen or suggestions of clean, snowy mountains. Examples are the various Davidoff Cool Water editions, Narciso Rodriguez Essence, Creed Himalaya and Silver Mountain Water, and Abdul Samad Al Qurashi Oceanic Fresh.
Ozonic
Another group that is similar to Aquatics is the Ozonic fragrances. The word 'ozonic' is used to describe aroma chemicals that are meant to mimic the smell of clean fresh air, frequently described as the smell of the air right after a thunderstorm. They have light, somewhat elusive, marine but earthy notes suggesting recent rain or fresh morning dew. Usually they are included among the base notes of a composition, where they provide crispness and coolness that often simulates sea air. They typically are mixed with floral, fruity, or woodsy notes to accent, brighten, and lift them. Ozonic perfumes have gentle, alluring scents that are not overpowering even during warm times when the perfume evaporates easily. They are extremely versatile, appropriate for either casual or formal occasions.
There are three major components to the classic ozonic smell.
First is ozone chemical itself, an unstable molecule composed of three oxygen atoms. It is created when an electrical charge from lightning splits atmospheric nitrogen and oxygen molecules into separate atoms, some recombining into dinitrogen oxide or nitric oxide, which in turn reacts with other atmospheric chemicals to produce O3.
The second factor is petrichor, an earthy aroma produced when rain falls on dry soil. This smell comes from an oil exuded by certain plants during dry periods, during which the oil is absorbed into clay-based soils and rocks. During rain striking the ground, this oil is released into the air with the petrichor odor.
And finally, the third component is the musty aroma of geosmin, a metabolic by-product of bacteria or blue-green algae in damp earth. Together these three factors produce the distinctive overall ozonic scent.
The term ozonic is somewhat divisive, with some experts proposing that it is just the same general group as the Aquatic family and Oceanic group. Others distinguish among them, saying that Aquatic and Oceanic refer specifically to beach, watery, or 'wet flower' notes, reminiscent of a pond, lake, or sea (usually due to inclusion of a synthetic like calone, such as in Acqua di Gio and Bvlgari Aqva); while ozonic scents, on the other hand, are more airy, often with a piercing dry note that is like inhaling very cold air or oxygen (a quality of Lanvin Oxygen or Aqua Quorum). In addition, increasing numbers of people object to any use of the term 'ozonic' in perfumery since ozone itself, at high enough concentrations, is harmful to the respiratory tract and actually has nothing to do directly with fresh, clean air. In fact, the smell of the air after a thunderstorm has passed over a city has more to do with chemical reactions with air and ground pollution than with factors from the earth.
Masculine fragrances with significant Aquatic/Ozonic/Marine accords:
(with the predominant character in parentheses)
Abercrombie & Fitch First Instinct (watery/airy)
Acqua di Parma Blu Mediterraneo Fico di Amalfi (marine), Arancia di Capri (watery/airy)
Amouage Portrayl Man (ozonic)
Avon Maxx, Wild Country Musk, 015 London (ozonic)
Azzaro Chrome Intense (ozonic), Chrome United (watery/airy)
Bath & Bodny Works Ocean (ozonic)
Bentley Azure (ozonic), Silverlake (watery/airy), Momentum Unlimited (watery/airy)
Bvlgari Aqva Atlantiqve (marine), Aqva Marine (marine), Aqva Amara
By Kilian Roses on Ice (ozonic)
Calvin Klein Eternity Air (ozonic), One Summer 2019 (watery/airy), Eternity, Eternity Aqua
Caron Nuit Fraiche (ozonic)
Christian Dior Balade Sauvage (ozonic)
Creed Green Irish Tweed (ozonic), Virgin Island Water (marine), Millesime Imperial
Davidoff Cool Water Wave (marine), Cool Water
Diesel Fuel for Life He Summer (ozonic)
Dior Fahrenheit (ozonic)
Dolce & Gabbana Light Blue Sun (ozonic), Light Blue Intense (watery/airy)
Dunhill Pure (watery/airy)
Ermenegildo Zegna Uomo (ozonic)
Faberlic Favorite
Fendi Fan di Acqua
Giorgio Armani Acqua di Gio Profondo, AdG, AdG Essenze, AdG Profumo
Hugo Boss Bottled United
Isssey Miyake l'Eau d'Issey Sport (watery/airy)
Jil Sander Sun Men Fizz (ozonic)
Jo Malone Wood Sage & Sea Salt (marine)
Lalique Hommage a l'Homme (ozonic)
Lanvin Eclat d'Arpege (watery/airy)
Michael Kors Extreme Sky (ozonic)
Narciso Rodriguez (ozonic)
Nautica Voyage
Paco Rabanne 1 Million Luck (ozonic), Invictus Aqua
Paul Smith Essential (ozonic)
Porsche Design Palladium (ozonic)
Ralph Lauren Polo Blue (watery/airy), Polo Sport
Rasasi Hawas (watery/airy)
Salvatore Ferragamo Uomo Urban Feel (ozonic), Acqua Essenziale
Tom Ford Oud Minerale
Tommy Bahama St. Barts
Versace pour Homme (watery/airy)
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme le Parfum (ozonic), l'Homme Libre (watery/airy)
Zara Aquatic Mind (marine), Night (marine), Unbreakable
These are just some of the most popular ones. In addition, there are a lot of unisex fragrances, too many to list.
Fresh
A closely related fragrance family - or simply a different approach to classification - which many incorporate into the Aquatic family, is the Fresh family. It is quite varied and somewhat poorly defined, ranging from fruity, green, aquatic, and citrus through aromatic. Unlike other categories, it is not based on a single defining characteristic but rather on its overall fresh, lively, invigorating quality. Many but not all of the accords in this family are found primarily in summer perfumes.
Types of notes:
- Fresh fruity notes often include those of peaches, pears, apples, guava, mango, pineapple, melon, and passion fruit, lusher than citrus notes. Their freshness is softened with a light, sensual touch of sweetness.
- Fresh green notes include green leaves (such as violet leaf), tea leaves, vines, and fresh cut grass. Clean and like a breath of fresh air through an open window, occasionally with a whisper of fruit, they evoke the sense of a cool, shaded spot. They are longer lasting than others in the Fresh family.
- Fresh aquatic notes include marine, calone, seaweed, and driftwood. The most refreshing of the groups, these are the ones most often also termed 'ozonic,' displaying synthetic ingredients identified and developed through headspace technology. The majority of these scents are created for men.
- Fresh citruses include lemon, neroli, mandarin, lime, bergamot, and grapefruit. With simple elegance and crispness ('like a perfectly-ironed white shirt in a bottle'), these are often used in unisex compositions. They tend to be short-lived on the skin, especially on warm days.
- Fresh aromatic notes include thyme, tarragon, rosemary, eucalyptus, lavender, and sage. Airy and outdoorsy, more masculine than feminine, these notes blend well with citruses.
Popular examples of fragrances that might be included in the Fresh group (some in other families, as well):
Acqua di Gio Profumo
Azzaro Chrome Legend
Bath & Body Works White Citrus
Burberry Weekend
Bvlgari Man in Black, Wood Neroli, Aqua Amara
Byredo Mister Marvelous
Calvin Klein Eternity Aqua, CK One
Chanel Bleu, Allure Sport Extreme
Christian Dior Sauvage
Creed Orange Spice, Aventus, Virgin Island Water
Diesel Only the Brave
Dolce & Gabbana The One Royal Night, Light Blue Intense
Dunhill Icon Absolute, Desire Black
Giorgio Armani Code Ice
Gucci Guilty
Hermes Terre d'Hermes
Hugo Boss The Scent Absolute, Hugo Element
Jimmy Choo Man
Jo Malone Pomegranate Noir
Kenneth Cole Mankind
Kenzo 'Eau pour HommeLanvin l'Homme
Lanvin l'Homme
Liz Claiborne Curve
Nautica Voyage
Nikos Sculpture pour Homme
Paco Rabanne 1 Million Intense
Prada Luna Rossa Sport, l'Homme
Puig Yacht Man Blue
Ralph Lauren Polo Red Extreme
S.T. Dupont pour Homme
Shisedo Zen
Tom Ford Neroli Portofino Aqua
Versace Dylan Blue
Yves St. Laurent Y, l'Homme Ultime