Fragrance Terms

[churchilllafemme]

The following is the first post in a series I started elsewhere in 2016 about fragrances in shaving products. I realize some of you have seen these already, but if there are some who haven't and are interested, I can post some of the succeeding ones from the past periodically.

I have become interested in the terms used in defining and describing fragrances of colognes, eau de toilettes, and aftershaves, and I thought I would do a little research and post now and then what I find out about some of the terms. I am by no means an expert or even very knowledgeable about any of this.

NB: I "borrow" freely from online websites for these posts. I do not claim to be creating all-original material.

Today, to start the process, I will briefly discuss sillage. Feel free to comment, including talking about your own personal experiences with various scents.

Sillage (pronounced as see-yawj) is a term for the scent trail left by a fragrance wearer, describing a scent's ability to emanate from the wearer and penetrate a surrounding area or room. In other words, it defines how close a fragrance stays to the skin. It is derived from the French word for "wake," as in the trail left on water by a moving boat. Sillage is most often used in discussing perfumes or colognes but can also be applied to aftershaves. It describes how much a scent diffuses around the wearer, and strong sillage means that a fragrance projects well. It has nothing to do with the complexity or richness of the fragrance composition, but rather with the diffusive character of its materials. And that character is influenced by factors such as weather, the temperature and humidity of the wearer's skin, the amount of alcohol in the fragrance, the weights of the various molecules (the lower the weight, the greater the diffusion), and the relative aroma perceptibility of the molecules (the minimum parts per million noticed by most human noses).

Minimal sillage fragrances are ones that stay close to the skin and create a more intimate scent aura, called a "skin scent." Generally, but definitely not always, scents with strong sillage tend to be complimented more highly by other people; but in some environments (offices, theaters, restaurants, etc.) it is wiser to keep the fragrance trail more understated and discreet. Strong sillage in a closed space can be overwhelming.

Sillage is often misunderstood. Many people associate strong sillage with hard-hitting, intrusive fragrances, but it actually is something entirely different. "Sillage is the projection or the bloom of a fragrance," says Sophie Labbe, an expert behind scents from Calvin Klein, Bulgari and Givenchy. "It is different from the intensity or power of a scent; sillage is more of an aura. You feel it, but you aren't overwhelmed by it." Sometimes referred to as "lift," sillage represents the lingering magical quality that is detected after someone has passed by. And while affected by some of the same factors, sillage is not the same thing as longevity or how long a scent persists after application.

While scent strength influences sillage, a higher total concentration of scent does not necessarily imply a more potent sillage. So a perfume, for example, will not always have a stronger sillage than a cologne or eau de toilette or even an aftershave.

The overall character of a scent with relatively strong or weak sillage can be light or dark, floral, fruity, woody, sweet, or spicy. It is possible for its projection to come primarily from the dry-down, which is where heavy base notes such as patchouli, vanilla, or amber are typically found, but it more often is due to the top or heart notes (especially the fruits, herbs, and florals), which tend to be smaller, lighter molecules that diffuse more easily. Sillage is the result of evaporation rate, influenced by the chemical natures and interactions of the ingredients, which in turn can be manipulated by scent experts. A commonly used ratio of top-heart-base notes is 60-25-15, but when greater projection and sillage is desired, it sometimes is changed to 70-20-10 to emphasize the top notes. And of course the amount of the fragrance that is applied is a big factor in sillage as well as other scent qualities.

Fragrance wearers sometimes arbitrarily and generally define low or weak sillage as less than arm's length projection, often representing "quieter" scents. Moderate sillage is that of a scent you are wearing that you and those near you can smell, and strong sillage is that of a fragrance that lingers appreciably behind you as you walk away. But a fragrance can also smell different depending upon where one stands in the sillage, with sometimes dramatic character changes with increasing distance.

A question sometimes asked is whether or not you can detect the sillage strength of a particular fragrance on yourself. One test that has been suggested is the following: spray the back of your hand once with the fragrance. Immediately leave the place where you sprayed (e.g. move to another room), trying to avoid smelling the scent as much as possible while you leave the area. Then stand with your hand down at your side; if you can smell the fragrance, the sillage is strong. If not, bring your hand just a few inches toward your face; if you can smell it, then the sillage is moderate. Keep moving your hand slowly closer to your nose until you can smell the fragrance. If you must have your hand close to your nose to detect the smell, then it is a weak or skin scent sillage. However, clearly the best approach is to consult with someone else, using a full strength application of the fragrance as you normally would wear it and waiting 15-30 minutes before the consultation.

 

[Dave in KY]

Elsewhere or not it will be nice to have it here John. Thanks

 

[churchilllafemme]

Skin Types and Fragrances

There has been much discussion about how fragrances smell differently on different people. The major factor is the skin type, i.e. dry, normal, and oily skin. (This classification does not take into account the issue of sensitivity of skin, another topic entirely.) The effect of skin type on fragrances is most notable with colognes and eaux de toilettes with flowery, citrusy, or fruity aromas because of their relatively light scents and high volatility.

The simplest differentiation is that between dry skin and oily skin. One can gauge the oiliness of the skin by feeling how hydrated it seems to the touch. The less dry it feels, the more oily it is likely to be.

Dry Skin

Most fair-skinned and light-haired people tend to have drier skin. Dry skin is characterized by tiny or nearly invisible pores, low elasticity, and roughness.

Fragrances tend to evaporate quickly on dry skin because there is little oil to which their molecules can adhere, as well as being absorbed below the surface more readily. To maximize scent longevity, it is best to moisturize dry skin with water and/or an unscented - or similarly scented - lotion, rubbed in well, before spraying on a fragrance. (In addition, staying away from shower scrubbing implements that remove beneficial oils helps. And frequent use of a high-quality body lotion or body butter, especially after bathing, will help to keep the skin moisturized and enable it to hold scents longer.) If using an unscented moisturizer, some have found it helpful to spray a little of the fragrance onto the moisturizer before it is applied to act as a sort of 'primer.' A small amount of petroleum jelly or shea butter can be applied to pulse points before the fragrance is added. It also helps sometimes to mix a fragrance with coconut oil or grapeseed oil before application. Reapplication of fragrance after a few hours often is needed. Another choice is to buy perfume oils rather than standard fragrance liquids, since oils are much less diluted, or to layer a scented oil with its matching or similar perfume fragrance. It is recommended that those with dry skin avoid rubbing their scented wrists together after spritzing of the fragrance to prevent 'weakening' of the scent.

Says perfume expert Don Donovan, "Dry skin needs bigger fragrances with a good solid base to hold up the fragrance and make it last. Orientals and chypres work well, as do spices and the heavier blooms like tuberose." Intoxicating, stronger, or heavier 'winter' type colognes with high oil concentrations seem to match dry skin well. Musky, spicy, and woody scents or those with very heady floral and aromatic notes such as patchouli and ambergris are ideal.

Fragrances recommended for dry skin include:
Aramis JHL
Bvlgari Aqua
Chanel Egoiste Platinum
Creed Green Irish Tweed
Czech & Speake Cuba, Vétiver Vert
Davidoff Good Life, Zino
Givenchy Blue Label
Gucci Envy
Guerlain l'Instant pour Homme
Hugo Boss Selection, In Motion
Jean Paul Gaultier Fleur du Male
Kenzo pour Homme
Serge Lutens Ambre Sultan

Normal Skin

Normal skin is characterized by clear complexion and barely visible pores. Since normal skin has more oil content than dry skin, fragrances last longer.

Oily Skin

Those with darker hair generally have oilier skin with more natural moisture and larger pores. Oily skin might be considered the 'best' for fragrances, since scent molecules cling tightly to it and remain present longer. Abundant natural skin oils also appear to trigger reactions among the compounds in a fragrance, making the smell more intense. Those with dark hair and/or oily skin should use less fragrance as a rule.

Oily skin will hold top notes for longer periods and will also exaggerate certain elements such as sweet nuts or other very sweet notes, which then can be perceived as overwhelming. Fruit, especially citruses, can do very well on oily skin. Very light floral or orange scents are said to be ideal. Oily skin also complements musky fragrances well, the oil molecules bonding together to shape scent character and depth, but the musk smell will persist tenaciously, so only a little fragrance should be used. Says Donovan, "The general rule is that oily skin makes fragrances pop. [It] can turn a quite modest, discreet scent into a magnum opus. However, you have to be careful: certain elements can become too much and upset the balance of a perfume. I had a client who just loved a scent to pieces on the blotter, but on her skin it became syrupy."

It is recommended that those with oily skin moisturize normally but use a lighter lotion specifically created for their skin type. They should choose only one body area to apply a fragrance, as opposed to two or three areas; the neck or the wrists would seem to be ideal. And frequent re-application of fragrance should be avoided. Generally, people with oily skin seem to do best with 'summer' type colognes.

Recommended fragrances for those with oily skin include:
Czech & Speake Neroli, Oxford & Cambridge
Dior Homme Sport, Homme Intense, Homme Eau
Joop Nightflight
Kenneth Cole Black
Le Labo Bergamote 22
Malin & Goetz Lime Tonic
Oscar for Men
Prada Infusion d'Homme
Ralph Lauren Polo (various)
Terre d'Hermes Tres Fraiche
Trumper GFT
Versace pour Homme

Other Factors

One's body chemistry, temperature, oils, and bacterial presence play important roles in how a perfume is expressed on the skin (including the specific notes that emanate), as well as the duration of the scent. Perfume writers state that up to 30% of questions from their readers are about skin chemistry and its effects on fragrance. Among journalists and writers, the opinions often seem to fall into two very different groups: skin chemistry does not matter at all or skin chemistry determines everything. Perfumers generally believe fervently in chemistry influencing the way a fragrance evolves on the skin, and many insist on smelling their compositions on a number of different people before making decisions at various stages of fragrance development. However, states Donovan, "I have to say that, sadly, there has been no scientific investigation into this." Despite this, it appears to most that the top note is where differences are particularly noticeable, although the drydown also can be altered.

Perhaps the most important skin factors affecting a scent are the pH balance and the temperature. Skin acidity or alkalinity (variances in pH levels) differ from person to person and change with age, chemically affecting a fragrance's ingredients and how they smell in different ways. Normal healthy skin pH usually is slightly acidic at pH 4.4-5.5 (with neutral pH being 7), while alkaline skin has a pH at 7 or above. Medical conditions like eczema can cause skin alkalinity, as can external factors such as some bar soaps, while other types of skin ailments and diabetes can make the skin more acidic, with a lower pH. Skin becomes more alkaline with drying and with aging. There is controversy, but some writers claim that a perfume or cologne is expressed most fully on the skin when the pH is slight alkaline at 7.35-7.45, although perfume fragrances may develop more rapidly on acidic skin. Others believe that the 'ideal' pH for scent projection and longevity varies among individuals, further necessitating a trial and error approach to choosing fragrances despite the general rules. Donovan recommends use of a shower gel designed for sensitive skin, which will help to regulate and stabilize the pH. Interestingly, natural redheads are reported to have slightly more acidic skin than those with other hair colors.

Generally, a person with a higher basal body temperature will have warmer skin and fragrances will not last as long, although this is influenced also by the clothing worn and the ambient environment.

Another factor influencing the expression of a fragrance is the balance of hormones and fatty acids present in the skin, which varies greatly from one individual to another, as well as changing from day to day and with age. Variations in factors such as stress and anxiety also can have an effect through hormone changes. It is thought that the effect of hormones is partly due to their influence on populations of skin bacterial flora, in addition influencing the pH.

A person's lifestyle is a major overall factor, including diet, exercise, whether or not one smokes, whether or not an infection or inflammation is present, and the medications being taken (internally or applied externally, especially if the medications are used for prolonged periods). In ancient times, doctors would smell the wrists of their patients in order to determine their diet and their states of health. An individual with a balanced diet has a different basic body smell than someone with a more rigid diet; vegans and vegetarians smell different than people who eat a lot of meat or fish. People who eat spicy foods, including foods with sulfur such as garlic or onions, and curries with cumin, have a distinct strong smell that seeps through the pores and imparts an undertone to fragrances, sometimes for the better and sometimes for the worse. This is not due to a chemical reaction but rather just to the effect of layering a scent over a base of 'eau de garlic.' A low-fat diet will result in lower oil levels in the skin, and fragrances will tend not to last as long. Alcohol intake will also affect a fragrance, since it is secreted through the skin (along with sugars in the case of a hangover), increasing the loss of smaller, lighter scent molecules as well as affecting the pH and bacterial growth. Coffee can have an effect on fragrances, but this seems to be somewhat unpredictable. And generally, those who exercise frequently will notice that their fragrances do not last as long because increased body temperature causes more rapid dissipation.

(A simple experiment to demonstrate the effect of ingested foods is to drink an infusion of fenugreek seeds at bedtime and smell the arm in the morning, at which time a caramel or maple syrup scent should be perceived on the skin.)

Pheromones also seem to play a role in how fragrances smell on a particular individual, although scientific research is lacking and many aspects remain debatable. Pheromones are predominantly secreted on the neck, so fragrances applied in that area will be most affected.

One obvious factor in the interaction of body chemistry and fragrances is perspiration. When sweat mixes with a fragrance, there are thought to be chemical reactions, which vary with different ingredients, with brands of scent, and due to personal body chemistry. In general, 'summer' scents such as citrus and grasses mix well with and are amplified somewhat by sweat, taking on additional depth as the perspiration evaporates and the scent lingers. Examples of products that seem to do especially well with perspiraton are Hermes Eau d'Orange Verte, l'Artisan Parfumeur Timbuktu, and Chanel Allure. In contrast, some ingredients such as blackcurrant leaf, musk, and woods are not affected well by sweat.

Influences that have been discussed but about which there is no scientific study at all are the blood type and the color tone of the skin. Lighter skin tends to have finer graining of pores, with less oily sebum secreted, so it is likely to project fragrances more 'loudly' and to lose them more quickly. It is said also that more darkly pigmented skin seems to project gourmand and vanillic scents especially well and loses lighter and greener scents relatively quickly, while less pigmented skin may in some way 'hold on' better to aromatic scents.

Although all fragrances are affected by these factors to varying degrees, it is thought that green, fruity, and citrusy compositions seem to be particularly sensitive to them. It seems that clean, dry skin shows less effect than damp skin or skin with added external factors such as dirt. Recently, techniques based on headspace analysis and solvent swabbing have been developed to monitor fragrance concentrations on and above the skin while they are in use, using relatively inert surfaces such as vitreous tile as controls, in an effort to quantitate perfume behavior changes and their underlying processes. So far there has been little evidence released, but there seem to be indications that chemical degradation reactions occur most readily in the underarm area, probably due to microbial catalysis. It may be possible in the future to elucidate these chemical reactions and design specific fragrance effects around them in order to enhance the overall experience for an individual.

 

[churchilllafemme]

Absolute

An absolute, also known as an essence, is a natural fragrance material extracted from plant parts. Basically it is the strongest aromatic material that can be obtained from a plant or flower. Similar to essential oils but more concentrated, absolutes are highly aromatic, oily mixtures used in perfumery and aromatherapy. They contain a higher density of coloring, waxes, and other natural constituents from the plant than do essential oils. Traditionally absolutes were produced through enfleurage, the use of odorless fats to capture compounds exuded by botanical matter, but more commonly now they are the product of solvent extraction. In this process, first an organic solvent such as hexane is added to the plant material to extract the non-polar compounds. This solution is then filtered and concentrated by distillation or evaporation to produce a waxy mass called concrete. The more polar, fragrant compounds are extracted from the concrete into ethanol. When the ethyl alcohol evaporates, an oil — the absolute, typically still containing 1-5% ethanol — is left behind. Because certain absolutes, such as vanilla used in aromatherapy, require more purity, a proprietary procedure involving only natural, food-grade, grain alcohol with no hexane is sometimes used for the entire extraction process.

Because the aromatic compounds have not undergone processes with high temperatures, absolutes can be produced with aromas closer to the original plant product than is possible with essential oils produced through steam distillation. Examples of this difference are rose otto (steam-distilled rose oil) vs. rose absolute and neroli (steam-distilled oil from the bitter orange tree blossom) vs. orange blossom absolute. In addition, some plant materials, such as jasmine, tuberose, and mimosa, are either too delicate or too inert to be steam-distilled but can be obtained by solvent extraction.

Unlike essential oils, absolute oils are volatile and evaporate when exposed to air. Absolute oils must be stored in dark, air-tight glass bottles and kept away from heat. If stored properly, they can last for more than five years. Because of the high quality and low yield of their production, absolutes are quite expensive. Absolute oils are extremely concentrated and must never be applied directly to the skin or taken internally.

 

[churchilllafemme]

Incense

Incense (from Latin: incendere, "to burn") is composed of aromatic biotic materials which release fragrant smoke when burned. It is used in religious ceremonies, ritual purification, aromatherapy, meditation, for creating a mood, and for masking bad odors. The exact origin of incense cannot be traced, but ancient writings provide insight into how religions and cultures of old used the aroma of burning herbs, flowers, tree leaves and other natural sources in their spiritual practices. The common use of incense may have originated in ancient Egypt, where gum resins and oleo gum resins of aromatic trees were imported from the Arabian and Somali coasts to be used in religious ceremonies. When the tomb of Tutankhamun was found, archeologists discovered oils, perfumes, and incense around his mummified body. Incense relics that are thousands of years old have been found all over the world.

When referring to burned materials, the term 'incense' refers to the substance itself, rather than to the odor that it produces. But in perfumery, the word means a complex aromatic fragrance blend that generally contains wood and spice elements, most commonly frankincense. In the darker register of oriental fragrances, for instance, frankincense, with its suggestion of green stems and leaves, lends a soft glow and buoyant lift to accords of spices, vanilla, and patchouli; the luminous quality of some of these fragrances is derived from the manner in which their spicy floral notes are modulated by the balsamic dryness of incense. Incense mixes contain both cold and warm elements: a citrusy, peppery top note and a dark, balsamic finish. Although this contrast is dramatic, the overall character is serene and calming. Although incense often tends to be associated with heavy, dark, smoky fragrances, it actually is a common note in many fresh citrus and green fragrances.

Early incense contained nothing more than a few ground herbs, plant gums, and honey, but the preparations have become much more complex and varied. Fragrance materials found in incense today include woods and barks (agarwood, cedaar, cyprus, sandalwood, juniper, cassia), seeds and fruits, (star anise, nutmeg, juniper berries, coriander, vanilla), resins and gums (benzoin, copal, frankincense, myrrh, labdanum, dragon's blood, mastic, storax, galbanum, elemi, opoponax, tlu balsam, choya loban, copahu, guggul, sandarac, kauri gum, amber), roots and rhizomes (vetiver, orris, jatamansi, calamus, galangal, costus), leaves (patchouli, sage, bay, tea), and flowers and buds (rose, clove, lavender, saffron). The materials that are used most often now in the making of incense for fragrances are borneol camphor, benzoin, frankincense, makko powder, tolu balsam, myrrh, labdanum, opoponax, and white Indian sandal powder. There can be various combinations of substances used to create differing tone accords, such as woody, floral, herbal, spicy, or resinous.

Well-known incense perfumes for men and women include Tauer Incense Rose and Incense Extreme; Amouage Tribute and Lyric Man; Czech & Speake Frankincense & Myrrh and No. 88; Gucci Pour Homme; Heeley Cardinal; Comme des Garçons Black, Kyoto, Avignon, and Ouarzazate; Armani Privé Bois D’Encens; Creed Himalaya; Dupont Signature; Cacheral Nemo; Azzaro Visit; Givenchy Xeryus; Perfum d'Empire Wazamba; Serge Lutens Fille en Aiguilles and De Profundis; Donna Karan Black Cashmere and Chaos; Annick Goutal Encens Flamboyant; Aedes de Venustas; Yves St. Laurent Nu; L'Artisan Seville a l'Aube and Passage d'Enfer; Kilian Incense Oud; Atelier Cologne Bois Blonds; Hermès Eau de Gentiane Blanche; Chanel No. 22; Aesop Mystra; Etro Shaal Nur; Norma Kamli Incense; Carlos Santana for Men; Montale Full Incense; l'Occitane en Provence Eau des Baux; and Jovoy Paris La Lithurgie des Heures.

 

[churchilllafemme]

Indole

The term indole comes from a combination of the words 'indigo' and 'oleum,' because the chemical substance named indole was first isolated in 1866 by treatment of indigo dye with oleum (oil). Indole (also called benzopyrrole) is an aromatic heterocyclic organic compound which contains a six-membered benzene ring fused to a five-membered nitrogen-containing pyrrole ring. Indole is a colorless to yellow solid at room temperature but has a low melting point temperature (126.5 degrees F).

Indole is found naturally in some floral derivatives, such as jasmine, tuberose, honeysuckle, ylang ylang, gardenia, and orange blossom, and it is produced by bacteria as a degradation product of the amino acid tryptophan in animal digestive tracts. The flower substances most closely associated with indole are jasmine and tuberose. It also occurs in coal tar, which is its main industrial source, with the indole fraction steam distilled, although it also can be synthesized via a variety of methods.

Indoles smell floral at low concentrations, but fecal at high concentrations (such as in animal waste). It is thought that this is because when a scent arrives at the nose in high concentration, it binds to a wider range of receptors; too much scent activates the receptors associated with bad smells, while a small amount binds to only a few more acceptable pleasant scent receptors. However, it is mainly the combination of indole with humidity and certain musky compounds that produces the putrid smell. Pure indole does not really smell of feces in isolation. By themselves, the pure white crystals of indole have a musty, stale, mothball smell that is reminiscent of mild decay. In commercial scents, the term 'indolic' usually means that a fragrance has an overripe or animalic characteristic. Indole adds a warm depth to perfumes, opulent, "heady," and rich, and sometimes actually clean/fresh.

Indoles are used widely in perfumery, very rarely naturally, but primarily in synthetic form. Natural jasmine essence, as used in the perfume industry, contains about 2.5% pure indole and is dark and narcotic in character, giving a full, lush, and voluptuous effect in the finished fragrance compound. However, since 1 kg of natural jasmine oil requires the processing of several million jasmine flower blossoms and costs around $10,000, jasmine indole is usually used in the form of synthetic jasmine oil for perfumery, costing around $10 per kg. The genuine flower extract is still used occasionally, but only in tiny amounts and in very expensive perfumes.

Indole is also used in making tryptophan for human dietary use and in making indoleacetic acid, a hormone that promotes root development in plant cuttings for gardening. In addition, it is used to create chocolate, coffee, and fruity accords in flavorings for food products.

Indolic commercial perfume fragrances include:

Eau Sauvage
Carnal Flower
Charogne
Mario Valentino Ocean Rain
Serge Lutens A La Nuit and Sarrasins
Chanel Cristalle
By Killian Love & Tears
L'Artisan Parfumeur La Chasse Aux Papillons
Montale Jasmine Full
Gucci Eau de Parfum
Annick Goutal Songes and Néroli
Jo Malone Orange Blossom
Diptyque Olene
Jean Patou Joy
Bal à Versailles
Bruno Acampora Jasmin
Carthusia Fiori di Capri
Antonia Flowers
AbdesSalaam Attar Tawaf
Amouage Tribute
Saffron James Nani
Gandhara
Penhaligon's Castile and Amaranthine
Guerlain Aqua Allegoria Flora Nerolia
Galimard Rafting
Krigler Juicy Jasmine
Jardin du Nil
Hermes Eau d'Hermes
Calvin Klein Eternity and Escape
Fabergé Brut

 

[churchilllafemme]

Leather

What does the term 'leather' mean in perfumery? Does it mean the smell of leather material itself? Or does it refer to fragrances that suggest the environment in which one finds leather? Or is it something else?

Some authors suggest that it means a fragrance type that resembles the sweet, pungent, animalic smokiness characteristic of the ingredients use in the process of tanning leathers, achieved through use of castoreum, labdanum, and synthetic chemicals. Others argue that it is a fragrance tone suggesting hay, leather itself, the manure and dirt of wood stalls, the odor of urine (used to make leather pliable), and the rich, earth scent of horses themselves. Leather perfumes, whether natural or synthetically derived, can have several accord variables and satisfy different interpretations, which makes the overall perception and definition of 'leather' variable and somewhat confusing. This is further complicated by the modern addition of a 'suede' note, a synthetic slightly salty tone. In terms of imitation of the actual scent of leather itself, there is also the question of differentiation among the different animals producing the leather hides: cowhide smells quite different than horseside or pighide, for example. And many people detect vague gasoline impressions from leather perfumes, which appears to be due to their methods of production.

Leather in perfumery is sometimes defined as a subdivision of the chypre family, but with added fougère and oriental tones. However, the Société Française des Parfumeurs puts it in its own separate family, Category G, which is subdivided into true leathers (G1), floral leathers (G2, usually with touches of iris or violet), and tobacco leathers (G3, with smoky, woody, and blond tobacco notes). And modern perfume classifications seem generally to be following this trend, although some people divide leather scents into Russian ones (inspired by the sharp odors of military garments) and Spanish ones (characterized more by the essence of herbs, flowers, and fruits). Probably the best known leather fragrances are those of the Cuir de Russie family. The word 'cuir' has French origins and is derived from the latin word corium for leather or hide.

Historically, leather is one of the oldest basic notes in perfumery, dating to a French Guild of Glovers (Gantiers et Parfumeurs) that was incorporated in 1268 and became well known for scenting the leather gloves of the aristocracy, especially in the 16th century. Guild members used pleasantly scented essences to mask the unappealing odor of newly tanned leather, which was redolent of curing materials such as urine and dung. In Italy, frangipani was used for scenting, in Spain it was camphor and ambergris, and in France orange blossom, violet, iris, and musk were preferred. In addition to providing a way to overpower the residual odors of leather curing, the essences used to scent gloves were employed as a way to bring something pleasant to the nose when one crossed the streets of the time, which were in fact open sewers transporting human and animal waste to rivers and ultimately to the sea. The Gantiers, as they were called, were given a place in the Six Corps, which were the six most powerful manufacturing societies of that time and which had preferential access to expensive raw products from overseas. Leather was primarily produced in the tanneries of Montpellier and those of its economic rival, Grasse.

Catherine de Medici (1519-1589), Queen of France from 1547 to 1559 and mother of three kings, took her favorite perfumer, René le Florentin, with her when she left Italy to marry Henri, Duc d'Orleans. In addition to his perfumes, he devised special toxic mixes for her to use to dispose of her enemies, including the one that scented the gloves with which she poisoned Jeanne d'Albert, mother of Henry IV. René eventually became the first perfumer to open a commercial shop in Paris. Catherine also sent for a Florentine perfumer, Tomarelli, and had him work in Grasse, renowned for its flowers, instructing him to capture their scents in perfumed essences. One of his products was the famous gloves called Gants à la Frangipane, named after a Roman family of the 12th century and using leather odorized with fresh jasmine flowers fixed with civet and musk. From these gloves came the term 'frangipani.'

The first officially documeted leather scent, still available today, was Creed Royal English Leather, worn by King George III. It was created as a body fragrance at the request of the king because he was very fond of the smell of scented leather gloves.

Natural Materials

Birch - Traditionally used in tanneries in Northern Europe, and especially in Russia and Finland, its bark produces tar and resin with an intensely wintergreen and tar-like odor that has been used frequently in Cuir de Russie type scents. For a soft deer leather smell, the birch scent is dissolved in vanilla or floral notes. Birch is often used in Russian leather perfumes.

Juniper and cade oil - Cade is a dark viscous oil produced when juniper trees are burned, possessing a smoky aroma reminiscent of forest campfires. It also has been used in Cuir de Russie scents along with birch. It has mold-suppressing properties and has been used for binding leather books to prevent deterioration.

Styrax - Liquidambar trees, from both Central America and Asia Minor, produce a sapwood (styrax) when their bark is pounded. An essence derived from the sapwood by vacuum distillation or use of volatile solvents is used to give a leather undertone which is sweeter than that of birch.

Cassie - The bark of the cassie tree, a tree in the mimosa family, as well as an absolute from its flowers, are used for giving a deep, intense leather note to perfumes.

Castoreum - This secretion from the glands of beavers, a by-product of the fur industry in Russia and Canada, has a very intense and repulsive odor when concentrated but provides a desirable dry leathery scent and fixative properties when highly diluted. It is prized for smelling like real leather.

Myrtle - Although it can produce a leather note (and is used in tanneries for curing hides) and is infrequently used, myrtle has a camphoreous, green tone that makes it not a preferred choice.

Cistus labdanum - This can give a more smoky/ambery leather note when such is desired for a perfume background.

These natural factors are especially good at rendering leather notes when they are combined with other essences such as black tea, patchouli, or tobacco.

Synthetics

Synthetic materials giving leathery notes in perfumery appeared in the 1880s with the discovery of quinolones, a family of aroma chemicals that were then used early in the 20th century in the production of modern Cuir de Russie scents such as Chanel Cuir de Russie, Caron Tabac Blond, Lanvin Scandal, and Piguet Bandit. The chemical name of the quinolone ingredient primarily used is 4-(2-methylpropyl) quinolone, commonly called isobutyl quinolone. Used in a concentration of 1% or less, it has a strong odor profile described as ambery, woody, and tobacco-like, as well as earthy, rooty, and nutty, similar in some ways to oakmoss and vetiver.

Another newer synthesized note is the suede accord, much more subtle and less aggressive than that of the quinolones. Suggestive of velours, it has been used in perfumes such as Lutens Daim Blond andDonna Karan.

Less often used is safraleine, an aroma chemical present in isolates of saffron that gives a smell combining elements of shoe polish, black cherry, and air conditioning/refrigeration fluid.

Aldehydes are also used in leather perfumes to balance and smooth the composition.

Well known leather perfumes/colognes/aftershaves for men include the folowing:

Acca Kappa 1869; Acqua di Parma Colonia Leather; Adidas Dare; Amouage Memoir Man; Antonio Banderas Diavolo Club; Atkinsons The Excelsior Bouquet; Aubusson Homme; Avon Black Suede Leather, Infinite Seduction, and Urban Edge; Axe Instinct; Baldessarini Private Affairs; Bond No. 9 Dubai Emerald; Bvlgari Man in Black "All Black"; Burberry Brit Rhythm; Byredo Baudelaire and Accord Oud; Carolina Herrera Men Prive; Cerruti L'Essence; Choppard 1000 Miglia Extreme and 1927 Vintage Edition; Christian Dior Homme Parfum and La Collection Couturier Parfumeur Leather Oud; Coach Leatherware series; Crabtree & Evelynn Sienna; Creed Royal English Leather; D.R. Harris Windsor; Davidoff Leather Blend; Dolce & Gabbana Velvet Exotic Leather and Velvet Wood; Donna Karan Men Summer 2014; English Leather; Floris Mahon Leather; G.F. Trumper Spanish Leather; Giorgio Armani Prive Cuir Majeste and Cuir Noir; Givenchy Cuir Blanc; Guerlain Cuir Beluga, Cuir de Russie, Derby, and Habit Rouge Rider Edition; Hermes Cuir d'Ange and Eau d'Hermes; Houbigant Duc de Vervins; Jack Black Signature Black Mark; Jean Patou Pour Homme; John Varvatos Dark Rebel Rider and JV Platinum Edition; Knize Ten; Marbert Man No. 2; Maurer & Wirtz GranValor Tabac; Missoni Uomo; Molinard Cuir; Montale Aoud Cuir d'Arabie; Oscar de la Renta Pour Lui; Paco Rabanne 1 Million Absolutely Gold and Black XS; Perry Ellis for Men Original and PE Red; Pierre Cardin Centaure Cuire Etalon, Enigme, and Collection Cuir Intense; Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Leather; Robert Piguet Knightsbridge; Roberta Andrade Tabac Blanc; Santa Maria Novella Nostalgia; Serge Lutens Boxeuses and Cuir Mauresque; The Crown Perfumery Eau de Russe; Tom Ford Neroli Portofino Forte and Tuscan Leather; Truefitt & Hill Spanish Leather; Valentino Uomo; Versace L'Homme; and Yves St. Laurent Noble Leather.

 

[FarmerTan]

FOLLOWING! Thanks for posting, should be an excellent resource for me, the lover of nice scents, but also the resident village idiot of the same subject!

 

[churchilllafemme]

FOLLOWING! Thanks for posting, should be an excellent resource for me, the lover of nice scents, but also the resident village idiot of the same subject!

Thanks. I enjoy doing it, but I certainly don't claim to be an expert either.

 

[churchilllafemme]

The Music of Fragrance

A major problem with language and fragrance terminology is that, as is said, "All art is a lie." 'Understanding' a perfume note or accord or describing its essence is meaningless in a way, similar to describing the particular key of a musical work. Many musical pieces are written in D minor, for example, yet each is a unique work of art. As perfumer Huib Maat says, "Throughout history we have sought to express ourselves in many different ways, and one of the most beloved forms of expression is the Alchemy of Scent. When perfume speaks to you, how do you listen? With your nose, your mind, your heart, your soul? A good perfume makes you sit up and take 'note' with every fibre of your being." Or as Jacques Guerlain put it, "I felt something so intense, I could only express it in a perfume." And as one perfume writer said, "The language of fragrance is unlike any other because it is not really about communication; it is meant to be vague."

Terminology similar to that of music has been used to describe aspects of perfume, such as in discussions of accords and harmonies. A great fragrance is as complex and harmonizing as a great musical composition and is also carefully composed of notes, as many or as few as are required to capture the perfumer's vision. Despite being technical and highly creative, the language of perfumes remains somewhat ambiguous because it is conveying ineffable qualities, just as description of a voice goes beyond the actual spoken words.

In 1857, perfumer and chemist G.W. Septinus Piesse published a guide called The Art of Perfumery, in which he introduced the idea of thinking about fragrance in terms of musical notes. In it he outlined a comparative scale of 46 different aromas called the 'Gamut of Odors.' He used the methodology of scaling notes, for instance assigning the F note to civet and ambergris and the C note to jasmine and rose. Although this methodology was never widely accepted, his terminology did become popular in perfume descriptions.

In the same way that one sings or plays together several notes in music to create a chord with a unique sound, a perfume accord is a balanced blend of raw material ingredients that lose their individual indentity but complement one another to create a completely new, unified odor impression. One simplistic example of this is violet + bergamot + jasmine = tea accord. In perfumery there is no theoretical limit to the number of ingredients that can be combined, but like in music, there is usually a carefully chosen balance of several notes. Natural perfumes often have 10-25 different notes combined in various accords, while fragrances mainly composed of synthetics can have 200 or more blended notes. When the perfume materials are properly and harmoniously mixed, they are said to be in accordance with each other, and the individual notes are not easily detected in the accord(s). (Enthusiasts and experts alike debate often and heatedly the presence or absence of particular notes in a fragrance.) And as in a musical melody, fragrance notes follow each other over time, overlapping in pleasing accords or jarring discords, while outlining a theme that keeps its unified character through several transpositions. In this process, the timing and expression of a single scent note is as important as its identity and strength.

A musical chord, although a combination of multiple unique tones, is built from one primary note called the 'root note.' If someone says a chord is a C chord, that means that its root note is a C. The type of chord being played depends upon the intervals between the notes, the main musical chord types being major (happy and simple), minor (sad or serious), diminished (unpleasant or tense), major seventh (thoughtful, jazzy), minor seventh (moody and contemplative), etc. Similarly, a fragrance accord will have several blended notes but is definied mostly by a single 'root' scent note. The creative blending of this root scent note with other unrelated notes structures the character of the fragrance, such as fresh or green. (It is interesting that a traditional French perfumer's workstation, at which raw scent materials are arranged by top, middle, and base notes, is called an 'organ.')

Within an accord, notes are indicators and descriptors of individual smells. The word note is borrowed from musical language to specify an olfactory impression of a scent or aroma and to describe the experience itself, usually but not always due to more than one single ingredient. (This is in addition to the other use of the word 'note' to indicate the stages of a perfume: top, middle, and base notes.) In other words, a perfume note may correspond to a single musical note, but more often is instead a larger scent experience similar to the musical note's tone quality, which is due to how it is struck, sustained, and modulated. Such fragrance notes may represent reality but sometimes are created to represent imagined/fantasy scents that can't actually be extracted or distilled from nature, such as leather or amber notes. These more 'complex' notes might be considered a transitional stage toward being an accord.

Like the function of the root scent note, the 'main accord' of a finished perfume reveals the overall theme, the story that is tells, and gives the perfume its olfactory classification (for example the classic accord of bergamot, labdanum, and oakmoss falling in the chypre family and the accord consisting of geranium, lavender, and bergamot being found in the fougères). This main accord can be situated in the top, the heart, or the base, or it can persist across the perfume's life from the opening all the way to the final base notes. Although dominant in a way, it is often just a minor percentage by volume of a mix and frequently is complemented by important secondary notes that emphasize a side aspect or prolong the accord's impression. Two of the most popular main accords are citrus and floral. Main accords often situated in the base include woods, Oriental, and amber. And those that frequently span the whole fragrance evolution include chypre and fougère.

In discussions of accords, there has been some confusion about the difference between an accord and a base. Some think of a base as being more of a finished product (perhaps bottled and with a commercial name), formulated with a simple concept such as 'fresh cut grass' or 'morning dewy rose' and used by a perfumer as a module that is the foundation for final fragrances. A fragrance base of this type, like an essential oil (which a base sometimes is created to approximate), might be considered as an accord or combination of accords that can be reused over and over as an underlying platform, to which other notes or accords are added in varying mixes to yield a number of completely different stand-alone fragrances. One good example is the combination of dihydromyrcenol, amborxan, allyl amyl blycolate, and ambergris tinture, which is present in many of the various Creed perfumes, giving all of them a specific freshness despite their differences. The word accord, on the other hand, often has a more abstract meaning, something that is imagined and may be approximated but never exactly or completely expressed. However, some say that a base and an accord are essentially the same things, both describing a combination of ingredients to form a new one for inclusion in a fragrance, and these writers use the words interchangeably in perfume discussions.

(As an aside, use of a scent base has several benefits: it can blend difficult or overpowering scents into a more tolerable incorporation; it may provide a better overall scent approximation of a particular object than the object itself regardless of how the object is processed; and it provides a way for the perfumer to quickly rough out a concept and present it to others for feedback, after which its 'edges' can be smoothed.)

Further adding to the language confusion around perfumes is use of the term 'facet,' borrowed from the vocabulary of gemology, which can sometimes mean the same as the word accord but at other times refers to a quality somewhere in between accord and family, an assembly of similar related notes with a defining character. One scheme that often is used to guide creation of accords includes use of 17 different fragrance facets that are stratified by their volatility from top note to base, each defined generally by the unique character it contributes to a composition. These consist of hesperidic, marine, aldehydic, new freshness, aromatic, green, floral, solar, fruity, spicy, woody, chypre, eastern, gourmet, musky, powdery, and animalic facts. This defining term contributes to the overall 'olfactory family' classification of the perfume that is depicted on fragrance wheels. The predominant theme is 'dressed' with one or more lesser facets to outline the complete architecture of the perfume.

Perfume, like music, creates an atmosphere and mood and has the ability both to influence and to mirror our feelings. A fragrance can be loud or quiet, energetic or peaceful, light or heavy, and simple or complex, and it too evolves and transforms over time like music. Some compare the quickly-evaporating top notes of perfume to the lighter, higher-frequency musical instruments like chimes or harps; the heart notes to a lead guitar or solo voice; and the heavier base scent notes to drums or the base viol. Perfumer Francis Kurkdjian has said, "To me music and perfume are very much related because they use a common medium - the air. You hear music when the vibration of the sound in the air hits your ears, the same way that perfume needs the movement of air to come to your nose. Both mediums are invisible, compared to painting or literature. This is why they are so deep in our soul, in a way."

 

[churchilllafemme]

Tonka Bean/Coumarin

Coumarin is a fragrant organic compound in the benzopyrone chemical class, considered a lactone. Its name comes from kumarú, the name in the native Galibi (Carib) and Old Tupi languages of Guyana for the Cayenne Gaiac tree (Dipteryx Odorata), and from the derivative French word coumarou. This large tropical tree, indigenous to the rainforests of Central America and northern South America, produces the tonka bean, in which coumarin is present in high concentration (1-3%) and from which it was first isolated. Radiocarbon dating has established that in the wild the trees can live for over 1,000 years. The tree originally was cultivated for its beautiful purple flowers. Each tree produces many fruits, with each fruit containing one bean that has a black and wrinkled outer surface and a smooth brown interior, inside a pod about the size of a Brazil nut. The trees produce 1-3kg of beans each per year. Venezuela, Brazil, Columbia, and Nigeria are the major commercial producers of tonka beans, and the U.S. is the largest importer, almost exclusively for the tobacco industry.

Natural coumarin also can be found in a variety of other plants, including Chinese cassia, sweet clover, sweetgrass, sweet woodruff, lavender, mullein, and angelica, as well as in sour cherries, strawberries, black currants, and apricots. It is found at high levels in some essential oils, such as cinnamon leaf and bark oils and lavender oil. Related compounds are found in some specimens of the genus Glycyrrhiza, from which the root and flavor licorice are derived. It has appetite-suppressing properties and a bitter taste, and it is thought that in this way coumarin may act in the plants to discourage predation.

The coumarin molecule was first isolated from tonka bean and sweet clover in 1820 by the German chemist August Vogel, who mistook it for benzoic acid. French pharmacist Nicholas Jean Baptiste Gaston Guibourt identified this error the same year and first named the compound. In 1856, Friedrich Woehler determined its structure, and in 1868 William Henry Perkin first synthesized it in the lab. Ten years later Perkin developed the industrial process for production of commercial coumarin.

Fallen pods are harvested from January to March, and the fresh fruits are picked in June and July. Distilling it is not effective, so the primary method of extracting the oil is by dissolving it to an absolute. The hard outer shell is removed, and the beans are spread out for 2-3 days to dry. They are drenched in alcohol for 12-24 hours, then dried again. Subsequently they shrivel, and a crystal structure, the absolute, appears on their surface. This absolute is a semihard bulk, light brown-yellow in color, and the character of this crystal layer is an indicator for buyers of the quality. Tonka bean absolute contains 20-45% (and rarely up to 90%) coumarin and is famed for displaying a very complex scent profile not matched by any single component, including the coumarin itself.

Ground tonka bean was first used in Europe for its smell when it was introduced in France in 1793, sometimes being used as a substitute for musk in scents for freshening clothing. Coumarin was one of the first commercial chemicals used in perfumes, appearing in Houbigant Fougère Royale (with a main accord of lavender, oakmoss, and 10% coumarin) by Paul Parquet in 1884 and subsequently in Jicky by Aimé Guerlain in 1889. It became renowned after its use in Shalimar by Jacques Guerlain in 1921. By the 1940s, artificial coumarin was readily available and inexpensive. Now among the most popular ingredients in modern perfumery, it is included in almost 90% of all perfumes. Descriptive lists of perfume notes might call it tonka bean, vanilla, marzipan, or tobacco. (Although tobacco absolute does not contain significant coumarin, they often are paired in accords called just 'tobacco.') Most commonly it is synthesized artificially now for perfumes.

The scent of coumarin is soft, sweet, and fresh, reminiscent of newly mown grass or hay. Along with the herbaceous tone, it has a slight spicy inclination and a prominent vanillic aspect, as well as complex notes of cherry, smoke, cinnamon, almond, tobacco, and caramel at higher concentrations. It has many diverse character facets and is famously versatile. It is rich and powdery and provides a voluptuous, Baroque tone. Coumarin generally arises from the base and extends through heart of a fragrance, bringing warm depth and character and lingering on the skin. Coumarin and tonka beans seem to work best in spicy and sweet fragrances featuring notes that are somewhat similar to it in character, including clove, vanilla, heliotrope, bitter almonds, cinnamon, patchouli, sandalwood, rose, lemon peel, lavender, benzoin, and balsams such as tolu and peru. It is particularly popular in masculine Gourmand, Fougère, Chypre, and Oriental compositions, in which its warmth offsets the aromatic-citrusy sharpness of the top notes. Coumarin has good fixative effects, further accounting for its use as a base element.

Besides its use in perfumes, coumarin is put into many personal care and laundry care products, including deodorants, shower gels and shampoos, detergents and soaps, air fresheners, and insect repellants, bringing a sweet vanillic character where natural vanilla would be too expensive, and combining especially well with floral accords. When ingested, it is moderately toxic to the liver and kidneys and is thought to be somewhat dangerous. It was banned by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1954 as a food additive because of its liver toxicity in rodent research. Despite this ban, it is used legally as a flavorant in cigar and sweet pipe tobacco and in the form of sweet woodruff in certain alcoholic drinks. It is used more widely in Europe, where it is allowed in some breakfast cereals and baked goods and in some restaurant foods, especially stews and desserts. Some chefs claim that a single tonka bean can flavor as many as 80 dishes, and French cooks have been so obsessed at times with its flavor that their enthusiasm has been called 'tonka fever.'

Coumarin is subject to some restrictions in its topical use (1.6% or less in a finished perfume and 0.1% in cosmetics) because of concerns regarding its safety if absorbed and about possible allergic sensitization, but evidence for it causing allergic reactions is disputed and unclear. Related compounds, the furanocoumarins (or phytocoumarins) occur in a variety of plants and can be hazardous. One of them is bergapten (from bergamot), which is easily absorbed through the skin and can cause severe sunburn with light exposure. In the search for possibly safer alternatives and a broader scent palette in perfumery, new coumarin-like products have been developed, including coumane, Bicyclo Nonalactone, Givaudan's Methyl Laitone, and Symrise's Cantryl, but while being sweet, nutty and vanillic, these tend to have more of a creamy coconut-like odor property. One exception is Tonkene, whose structure was obtained through computer simulation of true coumarin's 'molecular vibration' and which is claimed to have a scent profile very much like the natural substance.

Coumarin is used as a precursor reagent in the synthesis of synthetic anticoagulants, known as coumadins (4-hydroxycoumarins), which are designed to have high potency and long duration times in the bodies of rodents. These rodenticide chemicals produce death from internal hemorrhaging after a period of several days and are still in use, although more modern rodenticides have been developed. Coumarin can effectively mask many unpleasant smells, and in the past it was used often in the pharmaceutical industry in the preparation of potions containing substances such as fish oil or iodoform. Concern was raised about coumarin's potential in cosmetics to be absorbed and to cause hemorrhaging, but this has been proven to be unwarranted since the coumadins themselves are completely absent from cosmetic products and coumarin is not metabolized to them in the body. Coumarin dyes are used extensively as gain media in commercial blue-green tunable organic dye lasers. The flowers are still sold commercially, and the tree bark (known as Brazilian teak) has become very popular as a durable hardwood for flooring.

It is transformed by a number of fungal species into the natural anticoagulant dicoumarol, which was responsible historically for the bleeding disorder in cattle known as 'sweet clover disease,' due to the animals eating moldy silage, early in the 20th century. A compound related to coumarin, the prescription drug warfarin (Coumadin), inhibits vitamin K synthesis in humans. First synthesized in 1948, it has been used as a medical anticoagulant, inhibiting formation of clots in the treatment of deep vein thrombosis and pulmonary embolism. Coumarin also has limited approval for a few other medical uses, such as in the treatment of lymphedema. In basic research, there is preliminary evidence suggesting that it has anti-inflammatory, antitumor, antioxidant, and antimicrobial and antifungal properties. Although not supported by studies, it has been claimed that tonka beans can strengthen immune system functions. In the past, especially in folk medicine, the beans were used as a medicine for treatment of cramps, nausea, cough, spasms, and tuberculosis. Tonka oil and ground beans have been used in aromatherapy, in which they are said to promote relaxation, reduce anxiety, and relieve stress and depression. In some cultures the bean has been considered an aphrodisiac, as well as having the power to summon courage and promote acquisition of wealth.

Masculine fragrances with significant tonka bean/coumarin include the following:

4711 Acqua Colonia Hazel & Tonka
Aeropostale Benton
Alfred Dunhill Fresh
Amouage Honour, Journey
Avon Musk Iron, Open Road, Trekking
Azzaro pour Homme
Bella Bellissima Perfect Man
Breil Milano Complicity
Brut Prestige
Burberry Touch, Brit Rhythm
Carolina Herrera Chic
Caron pour un Homme
Chanel Allure Homme Sport Eau Extreme
Clive Christian VIII Rococo Immortelle
David Beckham Night for Men
Davidoff Brilliant Game
Dolce & Gabbana pour Homme
Galimard Eau de Romarin
Giorgio Armani Code (var.)
Givenchy Play Intense, Pi
Guerlain l'Homme Ideal
Hermes Equipage
Houbigant Fougere Royale
Hugo Boss Bottled Intense
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Beau, Le Male
Jequiti Prive Homme Absolu
John Varvatos 10th Anniversary Special
Joop Freigeist Black Edition
Karl Lagerfeld Private Klub
Kokeshi Tonka
Lacoste 2000
Lancetti Mood Man
Laura Biagiotti Essenza di Roma
Liz Claiborne Curve Connect
l'Occitane Au Bresil Cumaru
Master Perfumer Blue Spice #25
Mennen Skin Bracer
Moliard Musc
Montblanc Legend
Narciso Rodriguez Musc Oil
Oriflame Be the Legend
Otto Kern Signature Eau Fraiche
Paco Rabanne Black XS Los Angeles, One Million
Pineider Cuoio Nobile
Prada Luna Rossa Black
Ralph Lauren Polo Black
Remy Latour Cigar Vanille Tonka
Robert Graham Fortitude
Scorpio Noir Absolu
Shaik Gold
Sothys Homme
St. Hilaire Private White
Star Wars Empire
Thera Cosmeticos Klaus, Arcade
Thierry Mugler A*Men
Tom Frank Tobacco Crystal
Versace Eros, Pour Homme, Blue Jeans
Yanbal Zentro
Yardley Bond Street
Yves Rocher Hoggar
Yves St. Laurent l'Homme, La Nuit de l'Homme, Rive Gauche, Kouros
Zara Gourmand Leather, Kilsbergen, C4SHMER4N, Nightfall Blue, Denim Jacket

 

[churchilllafemme]

Mastic


Mastic (also called lentisque), a plant resin from a small shrubby tree (Pistacia lentiscus) found almost exlusively on the southern part of the Greek island of Chios, is a rare ingredient in perfumery, particularly as the most prominent note in a fragrance. A hard, brittle, bitter green or yellow resin, it is derived by sun drying from the transparent ‘tears’ of liquid mastic produced from incisions in the trees. There is a legend that as St. Isodore of Chios cried out in pain during his martyrdom, God blessed the mastic tree, which then began to cry its tears.

Mastic was used as a remedy for snakebite in ancient Greece and burned in North Africa as an incense. It also has been used medicinally for a large number of body disorders, especially stomach problems, as a seasoning in Turkey and Egypt, as a liqueur, candy, and pastry flavoring, and as a varnish. The oil from the seeds is called shina oil and is used for cooking. Mastic resin has been used as a kind of chewing gum, becoming soft and bright opaque white when chewed. In pharmacies and nature shops it is called arabic gum and Yemen gum.

Similar to pine, cedar, and olibanum, the complex smell of mastic is clean, balsamic, dry, lemony, and crisp, somewhat reminiscent of a fresh morning forest. It provides a sharp and pungent top note and a deep, smoky dry down to fragrance mixes, especially citrus and lavender-fougere colognes, and it has good fixative properties. It blends well with various herbs, frankincense, black pepper, coconut, tonka bean, vanilla, blood orange, carnation, violet, lavender, rose, juniper, and cedarwood.

The essential oil used in perfumery is produced by steam distillation or alcohol extraction of the resin and also of the leaves of the tree. It is a relatively expensive ingredient.

Mastic or lentisque perfumes include:

Annick Goutal Ninfeo Mio and Encens Flamboyant
Maurer & Wirtz 4711 Wunderwasser Elixir
Floris Soulle Ambar
Hussein Chalayan Green Comme des Garcons
Tom Ford Noir Extreme and Costa Azzurra
Acqua di Parma Blue Mediterraneo - Mirto di Panarea
Calvin Klein Reveal Men
John Varvatos Artisan Acqua
Davidoff Cool Water Night Dive
Aramis Black Aramis
Faena Mastic Tree Artisan Aftershave
Queen B French Mastic
Phaedon Lentisque
Baruti Berlin im Winter and Indigo
Sisley Eau d'Ikar

 

[churchilllafemme]

Artemisia/Wormwood/Mugwort

Artemisia (sometimes 'wormwood') is a large and diverse family of over 200 plants that includes mugwort, tarragon, sagebrush, and wormwood. While native to Europe, it grows readily across areas with various climates, including parts of Asia, Africa, South America, and North America, preferring temperate zones and dry or semiarid habitats. It has velvety white or greenish-silver stems, yellow-green leaves, and bulbous bright or pale yellow flowers. Most species have strong aromas and bitter tastes which discourage predators, although they are used as food plants by the larvae of a number of butterfly species.

The name Artemisia comes from Artemis, the Greek goddess of the hunt, the woodlands, and the moon. In folk medicine it was considered a feminine plant, with protective powers to guard over witches' gardens and healing properties, especially in relation to the uterus and pregnancy. Some believe the name also refers to Artemisia II, a queen of Caria (in western Anatolia), botanist, and medical researcher in the 4th century B.C. It was called wormwood because of the plant's ability to treat intestinal parasites.

Artemisia gained notoriety from its use in absinthe, a French liqueur that was a favorite of many 19th century artists, including Vincent van Gogh, and was purported to have numerous adverse effects (which actually appear to have been due to its very high alcohol content and contamination with methanol or toxic green dye). Long considered an hallucinogen and potential poison, wormwood was banned in the U.S. from 1912 until 2007. Overwhelmingly bitter, Artemisia is mentioned several times in the Bible as a symbol for extreme bitterness and suffering.

"Most wormwoods are segregated by the regions in which they are grown, and they all have different flavors and aromas," says Todd Leopold of Leopold Brothers distillery in Colorado. The best-known species is A. absinthium, grande wormwood, used by most distillers to produce absinthe. Wormwood can grow almost anywhere in the world, though much of it now is harvested commercially in Pontarlier (in Eastern France near the Swiss border) and in southern Virginia.

Use in Perfumes
Only a few species produce essential oils that are used commercially in perfumes, primarily A. vulgaris (mugwort), A. dracunculus (tarragon), and A. absinthium. A. vulgaris essential oil (Armoise) has an intense herbaceous, bittersweet, aromatic scent reminiscent of cedar leaf and sage and with musky, woody, marigold, and chamomile undertones. A. dranunculus is said to be more berry-like, evolving from bitterness to become sweet and floral. A. absinthium is a very sharp, bitter, 'green' fragrance element, used primarily is men's scents, where it brings balance to sweet floral and balsamic notes. Its initial slightly salty, bitter-camphoraceous tone develops into a more pleasant, sweet herbaceous, and tea-like drydown. It is used mainly in Fougère compositions, where it pairs well with lavender, oakmoss, and coumarin; and in Chypres, forest blends, and tobacco and leather fragrances. Wormwood is never used as a main theme, but rather is added as an accessory to other notes. Perfume expert Steffen Arctander says that A. Absinthium "is very warm and dry-woody, long-lasting and highly interesting as a unique perfume note. . . an extremely interesting perfume material which can be utilized in a multitude of new combinations. It blends well with oakmoss; it introduces a true-to-nature herbaceous note in a jasmin, orange-flower or hyacinth; it lends enormous richness to a chypre or a lavender compound..."

Artisan perfumers are experimenting with other Artemisias, including A. arborescens, which is said to have a clean, fresh, green aroma, and A. herba-alba, which is fresh, cool, and sweet-camphoraceous. The latter is being used especially to provide 'lift' to top note accords and to accentuate other green notes such as galbanum, sage, and rosemary. A. tridentata is used to a lesser degree by some artisan perfumers. Commonly known as North American sagebrush, it has a dry, pungent fragrance somewhat like garden sage but 'wilder.' A. dracunculus has characteristic herbal scent that has similarities to anise, basil, and sweet clover.

Medical Uses
All parts of the plant have been used in traditional medical practices for centuries. A. absinthium was used in European folk medicine to strengthen the body, ease digestion and remove intestinal worms, and reduce fever. A. herba-alba (white wormwood) is native to the Israeli Negev, and the bedouins in the desert used it as a general antiseptic, anthelmintic, and antispasmodic. It was also used to treat diabetics because its intense bitterness was believed to balance the excess of sugar and to stimulate the liver and pancreas, as do other bitter herbs such as germander and sage. Mugwort, also known as cronewort, is believed to be a nerve tonic and digestive tonic and is thought to increase mentrual bleeding and to treat pulmonary diseases. U.S. west coast Native American cultures used mugwort to prevent wound infections, to treat athlete's foot, as a headache remedy, and to stop internal bleeding. Another type of mugwort, A. californica (coastal sagebrush), has been used to treat respiratory complaints, including coughs, colds, and asthma, and for pain relief, in which it is said to be more effective and safer than opioids.

In Chinese medicine, mugwort is called 'moxa' and is used during acupuncture treatments, during which it is burned on top of the needles to warm them and activate the body's qi energy. This is thought to improve blood supply to the area. Chinese mugwort (A. argyi) is used mostly to treat women's bleeding during pregnancy or postpartum but also for promoting menstruation. Another Chinese species, A. apiaceae, is used to treat vertigo, cold sweats, fevers, headaches, and joint pains.

The main species employed in the West for their medicinal properties are A. cina, A. herba-alba, and A. arborescens, whose high santonin content makes them effective against intestinal worms. A. annua, which also contains artemisinin, is the current most effective drug against P. falciparum malaria, although there are concerns that subtherapeutic doses of it in popular juices and teas could promote resistance. Modern research has shown that Artemisia essential oils have antiseptic activity against several types of bacteria. A. capillaris is known to have sedative-hypnotic effects, and recent studies with mice have shown that the thujone in it and other Artemisias affect GABA levels and uptake in the brain, acting very much like cannabis THC does. A. annua has been considered as a possible treatment for COVID-19. Although there is no evidence that it can treat or prevent the viral infection, Madagascar has manufactured and distributed as a treatment of COVID-19 an herbal drink called Covid-Organics.

Other Uses
In aromatherapy, mugwort and lavender are used together in 'dream' pillows to balance their opposing actions of alertness/relaxation.
A. Absinthium also is used in soap fragrances and is popular as a scent for Japanese bath salts. And A. herba-alba is thought to be helpful for stress and emotional disturbance when used topically.

Artemisia tea has a strong medicinal flavor and is mostly drunk as a warming and energizing winter brew in North Africa and among Moroccan Jews in Israel, usually with mint. It is also ingested as a beneficial tea in Japan and Korea. A sweet rice-red bean Japanese pastry, Yomogi mochi, is flavored with mugwort. Historically, A. absinthium was used to spice mead in Medieval Europe, and in 18th century England it was used in making beer, preventing spoilage of the barley during fermentation. In combination with other herbs and spices, it flavors the green-colored absinthe liqueur, as well as vermouths. (The word vermouth is derived from the German word Wermut, meaning 'wormwood.') A. dranunculus (tarragon) is used widely as a culinary herb, especially in French cuisine.

Coastal mugwort and sagebrush have been used by Native American peoples in British Columbia to cleanse and purify a space in 'smudging ceremonies' (involving the burning of sacred herbs). Artemisia arborescens has been an important Christian monastery herb and was found wild in Israel near ancient Crusaders' forts. It is thought that the Crusaders brought it with them from Europe to plant in their own 'monastery gardens' near the fortresses. Interestingly, it also is now one of the fragrant herbs planted in Muslim cemeteries because it is believed that a good scent will be pleasing to the angels that judge the souls of the deceased. A few species oF Artemisia are grown as ornamental plants. A. tridentata, which has the most camphor, terpionoids, and tannins, was used by the Okanagan region's native people to tan hides. Several Artemisia species have been used as insect repellants.

Men's Artemisia and Wormwood Products
The common naming of essential oils of Artemisia species creates much confusion among perfumers, with some products called 'wormwood' and others called 'mugwort,' and some called both by various authors. In addition, Latin species name can refer to any of several different cultivars or subspecies with varying scents, so even the use of species names by manufacturers who are careful about which they are using can be confusing.

Either the wormwood or mugwort might be noted in ingredients, but the following masculine scents are usually described as having a significant Artemisia vulgaris ('mugwort' plant) presence:

Antica Barbieria Colla 3 Colonia No. 0
Avon Musk Fresh
Ayala Moriel Gaucho
Azzaro Naughty Leather, Summer Edition 2013
Burberry Touch
Calvin Klein Obession Summer
Caron Yatagan
Cartier l'Envol
Charriol Philippe II
Crabtree & Evelyn Black Absinthe
Denim Illusion
Dzintars Hit Yellow
Emanuel Ungaro Cologne Extreme
Emper Presidente Sports, Urban Man
Ermenegildo Zegna New York
Fabi per Lui
Francis Kurkdjian Lumiere Noire
Gucci pour Homme
Halston Man
Homem Agua de Cheiro
Jean Paul Gaultier Le Male
Jeanne Arthes Extreme Limit Rock
Jovan Fever
l'Acqua di Fiori Extreme
Marbert Man Classic
Max Deville Silverado (Black)
Natura Kaiak Aventura
Nazareno Gabrielli Details
Nicole Farhi Homme
Oriflame Deep Impact, Mister Giordani Aqua
Panouge Indifference
Parfums Genty Skyline Pacific
Thera Cosmieticos Monaco
X-Bond Happy
Yves St. Laurent La Collection Jazz, Kouros Eau d'Ete
Zara Man Limited

And those listed below are claimed to have some type of 'wormwood' tone:

Absolument Parfumeur La Treizieme Note
Amouage Memoir, Fate
Angel Schlesser Homme Oriental
Aramis Adventurer
Brocard Modern Classic
By Kilian A Taste of Heaven
Calvin Klein Dark Obsession, CK Free
Carven le Vetiver
Davidoff Hot Water
Durance en Provence Spiced Absinth
Dzintars Stylish Man
Franceso SMalto
Guess Man
Guy Laroche Drakkar Noir
Hugo Boss Spirit
Humiecki & Graef Skarb
I Profumi di Firenze Hidalgo
John Varvatos Vintage
Kenzo Homme Night
Kesling Bleu Formidable
Lindo Ganarin Esquire
Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin
Mauboussin pour Lui
Milton Lloyd Chique
Moschino Uomo
Opus Oils Absintheo
Oriflame Architect, Excite
Paco Rabanne Black XS
Pantheon Roma Raffaello
Parlux Decadence
Ralph Lauren Polo Black
Roberto Cavalli Man
Zara Denim Couture Extreme

 

[churchilllafemme]

Tobacco

Like several other members of the nightshade (Solanaceae) family, tobacco is native to the Americas and the West Indies. Two main species of tobacco are used aromatically, medicinally, and commercially. Nicotiana rustica is a wild tobacco, native to the West Indies and eastern North America, and is the one used by native Americans for centuries. Nicotiana tabacum is indigenous to Central and South American and was cultivated commercially later in the state of Virginia. Cultivated tobacco is an annual herbaceous plant that grows to a height of 3-6 feet. It is sensitive to temperature, air quality, ground humidity, and the type of soil. China now produces the most tobacco, followed by India, Brazil, and the U.S.

There is evidence that tobacco may have been grown in Guatemala in the 9th to 7th centuries B.C. and that Mayans smoked tobacco during religious ceremonies by the 1st century B.C. The Arawak/Taíno people of the Caribbean are believed to be the first to cultivate and use it on a large scale. The seeds were introduced to Europe by the Spanish monk Roman Pano in 1496, first considered a decorative plant, then a medicinal panacea, and eventually a snuff and tobacco source. It arrived in Africa at the beginning of the 17th century.

The English word tobacco originates from the Spanish and Portuguese 'tabaco,' which probably was derived from Taíno, the Caribbean Arawakan language. In Taíno, it was said to mean either a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolomé de las Casas, 1552), or tabago, a kind of L-shaped pipe used for sniffing tobacco smoke. However, similar words in Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian were used in the 15th century for certain medicinal herbs and were probably derived from the Arabic ṭubāq, a word dating to the 9th century.

Perfumery Use
It is unclear when the tobacco note first gained popularity in perfumery. One theory is that a tobacco tincture may have been used in citrus colognes of the early 19th century to add woody, leathery, or ambery base nuances. There are many vintage perfume bottles from the late 19th century with the names Tabac, Tabacco, Tabac Doux, Tabac Fleuri, and Tabac Noir, but whether or not they actually included any tobacco is unclear. Houbigant Fougère Royale (1882), with lavender, moss, and coumarin in its formula, created what might be considered a tobacco 'hologram,' an illusion of tobacco fragrance. Tobacco became more popular in general with the invention of cigarettes during the First World War. The history of flapper girls who started to smoke in society is reflected in perfumes such as Caron Tabac Blond (1919) and Molinard Habanita (1921), although they contain no raw tobacco material and are actually leather-amber and wood-amber compositions. It is said that Maurer & Wirtz Tabac was first created in 1939 with a true tobacco note but was recreated in 1959 without it. The first major recognized appearance of tobacco in perfumery was in Guerlain Vetiver (1959). According to legend, the fragrance came about after a chance meeting of Jean-Paul Guerlain with a gentleman walking in the woods and smoking a pipe.

Nicotine
The primary chemical component (1-5%) of tobacco is nicotine, an alkaloid named in 1586, commonly and in Latin, by the botanist Jacques Dalechamps in honor of Jean Nicot, the French ambassador to Portugal. Nicot gave tobacco to Catherine de Medici, the Queen of France, as a remedy for migraine. The plant material has a very complex chemical composition, including around 3000 different constituents. The major sources of the characteristic tobacco fragrance are the caretenoids, with contribution also from terpenoids, phenols, furans, and lactones.

Curing
Like several other aromatic botanicals used in perfumery, tobacco requires processing before extraction, since the raw leaves have a somewhat unpleasant smell. Curing of the leaves can be done in several ways to produce different types of tobacco for use.

Air curing involves simple air drying, either outdoors or indoors in well-ventilated barn structures. In the original method, the entire plant is cut down and placed upside down so that the leaves dry more or less straight. Once dried, the leaves are brittle and fragile, so they are gathered, removed from the stems, and stacked into piles on a humid day or with humidity added to the barn atmosphere. They are left then to ferment and become brown, a process taking about 6-8 weeks. This results in a somewhat sweet, lightly-flavored tobacco with a high nicotine level. Cigar and burley tobaccos are air cured.

Fire curing is done indoors, where a hardwood fire is kept smoldering for 3-10 weeks, making a smoke that permeates the leaves. This produces a tobacco low in sugar and with a high nicotine content, with a distinctive smoky aroma and flavor, used mainly for pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff.

Flue curing also is done indoors, but with the barn heated by hot air run through pipes (flues), without exposure of the tobacco to smoke. This results in a tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high nicotine levels, used for cigarettes. This is the fastest method, requiring about a week. Virginia tobacco that is flue cured is also called 'bright tobacco' because the curing turns its leaves gold, orange, or yellow.

Sun curing consists of leaving the tobacco outdoors and exposed openly to the sun for 4-5 days, after which the leaves are taken indoors and allowed to dry further and then soften for packing. This method is mostly used in Greece, Turkey, and other Mediterranean countries to create what is called Oriental tobacco, low in both sugar and nicotine and used in cigarettes and hooka blends.

After curing, the tobacco is tied into small bundles of about 20 leaves called 'hands' or is machine-pressed into large blocks called bales. At this stage, rum, vanilla, molasses, dried fruit, or mint are sometimes added for flavoring. Also at this point, perfumes are added to some tobacco for use in scented cigars, cigarettes, loose-leaf tobacco, and snuff. The hands or bales are finally aged for 1-3 years to mature the flavor and reduce bitterness.

Absolute
For perfumery, the tobacco is usually solvent extracted from the cured leaves with petroleum ether or hexane, resulting in a concrete from which the absolute (also known as essential oil) is removed by ethanol. This raw absolute is a thick, dark brown-amber, pliable mass that must be heated slowly to become pourable for mixing. Co-distillation with water under a stream of inert gas, with subsequent single-solvent extraction of the distillate, can produce a nearly clear liquid so that perfumes to which it is added are not so darkly colored. When heavily diluted, the absolute obtains its characteristic cigar or pipe tobacco aroma. Perfume expert Steffen Arctander describes the absolute as "a dark brown, semi-solid mass of strong, almost repulsive odor, faintly reminiscent of cigar tobacco... In dilution, it has a typical cigar-tobacco fragrance."

Generally tobacco absolute is known for providing an earthy, mossy, woody, sweet aroma with notes of hay, tea, balsam, honey, and fruit, and hints of flowers, leather, and chocolate. The scent of the absolute varies depending upon the quality of the tobacco leaves used. Some absolute is flat, dry, and woody, with a tannin-like quality suggesting black tea and mate absolute. Others are fuller, more rounded and animalic, with more body and almost chocolate-like richness. Potent and very long-lasting, tobacco scent needs to be highly diluted and used in small quantities with complementary essences. According to Arctander, the preferred tobacco for absolute is the 'Virginia' type, of which most suppliers now sell a nicotine-free type. France is the major producer of the absolute, although Bulgaria also markets a significant amount. Other tobacco varieties used on a smaller scale to produce absolute include Burley, Oriental (Turkish), and Latakia (grown in Syria and Cyprus).

The tobacco note can be found in the top, middle, or base of a perfume. With its tannin quality, tobacco makes an excellent base for leather compositions, especially with castoreum or hyraceum tinctures and cade oil or birch tar. It also blends beautifully with all 'woody' fragrances, including vetiver, patchouli, sandalwood, cedarwood, juniper, sage, and labdanum. In citrusy colognes, especially those with lime, it adds a polished, sophisticated tone. Tobacco works very well with Oriental spices and with florals (with which it shares some common chemical components), especially rose, violet-iris, geranium, jasmine, and orange blossom. In small amounts, it adds depth, character, and dryness to fougères. It generally adds sweet, sensuous, smoky, and mysterious nuances to a fragrance, giving hints of caramel or whiskey. There are very few other scents that conflict with it in a composition. In terms of the marketing around the concepts of gentlemen's clubs, smoking rooms, and other remnants of high class and 'manly pleasures,' tobacco sometimes is combined with tones of rum and whiskey, in addition to leather and smoky aromas. Finally, tobacco absolute also has excellent fixative properties.

Sometimes considered a subgroup of tobacco perfumes are those that are especially dry and pungent, in which tobacco strongly prevails or in which it is combined for this effect with ambergris or dry, sharp spices like cloves and black pepper. Examples are Maison Incens Oud Deneii, Rania T. Habanero, Sultan Pasha Attars, Jardins d'Ecrivains George, and Creed Tabarome.

Says perfumer Andy Tauer about tobacco, "In perfumery, I love it for its multitude of facets. There is a wood line. There are dried fruits giving it a gourmand character, supported by what brings 'cocoa' to mind. There is an animalic, furry, dirty line. And there is a quality that says 'bathroom, used, not cleaned for a while,' and so much more. Thus, it can be combined with all sorts of other notes: Think flowers, roses. The darkness of tobacco sets the flower petals in fire. Think patchouli, think vetiver, think amber, think musks, think... endless."

Another absolute whose aroma is similar to that of tobacco is Blazing Star (Liatris odoratissima), a plant of the aster family. Sweet, dry/powdery, herbal (coumarin-like), and with undertones of vanilla, it combines well with the same essences as does tobacco.

Tobacco Flower Absolute
There is also a tobacco flower absolute, usually sourced from Bulgaria. It very rare and is in high demand by perfumers. This is described as being delicate, subtle, rich, sweet, and spicy-floral, with a fresh and almost fruity note, reminiscent of carnation, violet, and cloves. It is sweeter and more complex than tobacco leaf absolute. Other varieties of tobacco, including jasmine/sweet or winged tobacco (N. alata), Aztec or 'strong' tobacco (N. rustica), and Petunia tobacco (N. petunoides) also produce very fragrant flowers that can be used for absolutes.

Tobacco Mimics and Synthetics
Other essences are frequently used to create an illusion of tobacco, including coumarin, sage, clove, cinnamon, lavender, vanilla, tonka beans, ambergris, licorice, amber, and deer tongue (lyatrix). Tobacco expert William Poucher includes a formula for a 'tobacco flower base' in his Perfumes, Cosmetics and Soaps that includes rose, carnation, clary sage, honey, jasmine, immortelle absolute, birch tar, coumarin, vanilla, and a hydroquinone, to recreate the flower's aroma. One modern example is Issara Dusita Paris, with tonka beans, clary sage, vetiver, and cedar. Another is Cuba Paris, with the the tobacco note actually only existing in its name. These scents also are sometimes added to emphasize the true tobacco (similar to the addition of coumarin to tobacco in cigarettes).

Synthetic tobacco absolute components are now available, including carotenoids. A well known one is veltonal, with a distinctive tobacco tone and a raspberry-pomegranate fruity accord. 3-Megastigmatrienone, which plays a major role in giving tobacco its aroma, is synthesized commercially and sold under the brand name Tabanon. Other chemicals with tobacco notes very close to the natural include oxophoyl, isophoryl acetate, 3-theaspirone, and 4-oxo-beta-ionone. Certain synthetic nitrous compounds are used in the perfume industry in nano-quantities to make the true tobacco note richer, more vivid, and with more contrast.

Other Uses
Tobacco is a sacred plant to nearly all Native American peoples. The first to use it were probably the Mayans. The Aztecs also cultivated it so they could use the flowers as ceremonial ornaments. Tobacco has been an essential element in many Native American rituals, in different ways: placed as an offering to gods or spirits, burned on a fire to produce fragrant smoke, and smoked in a pipe or as cigar-like rolled leaves. Generally they did not inhale the smoke, and historically their reverence for the plant and respect for its powers prevented them from allowing addiction to it. In addition to nicotine, tobacco contains other alkaloids that are monoamine oxidase inhibitors, whose properties are like those of certain modern antidepressant medications. These compounds give tobacco smoke its effect of 'generating the divine within,' which allowed Native American shamans to enter mystic altered states of consciousness in their practices.

Tobacco administered by chewing, as snuff, and by smoking, was used medicinally by Native Americans to treat many ailments, including asthma, fever, animal bites and stings, and mental confusion. It has been used topically in many cultures for centuries to treat oral ailments (toothaches, gum bleeding, cavities) and skin diseases (infections, burns, eczema, rashes, alopecia, dandruff). Macerated tobacco leaves have been used as first aid for venomous snake bites. The oil has been thought to be a potent aphrodisiac and an effective treatment for sexual problems. The absolute also has been used both topically and in aromatherapy burners to treat anxiety, depression, emotional imbalance, and mental 'dullness;' it is reputed to be soothing, calming, and relaxing. In addition, it is sometimes used in nasal drop form to suppress craving in those trying to quit smoking.

In modern times, tobacco has been considered to have sedative, diuretic, expectorant, emetic, and saliva stimulant effects, although it is not often used for these purposes. Research has demonstrated that it has antioxidant properties, possibly due to its vitamin C content. A Duke University study in 2006 showed that nicotine patches were effective as an antidepressant therapy, thought to be due to increased brain release of dopamine and serotonin. Tobacco has been shown to have some bactericidal and fungicidal activity. And research at the University of Louisiana Monroe has demonstrated that it has some benefit in treating prostate and breast cancers. Studies are also looking at its use for rheumatism and asthma.

With its toxic nicotine content, thought to provide a defense against animal predators, tobacco leaf extract was a popular pest control substance until the beginning of the 20th century, when it was replaced generally by other chemicals. In 1851, the Belgian chemist Jean Stas documented the use of tobacco extract as a murder poison, after the Count Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé poisoned his brother-in-law with it in order to acquire money. Varieties other than N. Tabacum are cultivated as ornamental plants, and tobacco plants have been used in some biofuels.

Tobacco appears in a large number of perfumes, with some considered to be unisex preparations and many thought to have a 'masculine' character. And while some contain only tobacco leaf absolute and others tobacco flower absolute, a number of them appear to have touches of both types in varying proportions, so the lines differentiating them are not clear. The following lists are simply representative of the commercial offerings.

'Masculine' Tobacco Leaf/Cigar/Pipe Tobacco Fragrances:

Aficionado Cigar Aficionado (cigar tobacco)
Alt-Innsbruck
Aramis Havana, Tobacco Reserve
Banana Republic Black Walnut
Bogart Pour Homme (cigar tobacco)
Burberry London
Calvin Klein CK One Shock
Coqui Tabaco
Creed Tabarome Millesime
Czech & Speake Cuba (cigar tobacco)
David Jourquin Cuir Tabac
Demeter Pipe Tobacco
Dolce & Gabbana The One
Emanuel Ungaro Man
Frau Tonis Parfum No. 70 Habanera
Gianfranco Ferre For Man (bitter pipe tobacco)
Giorgio Armani Code
Gucci Pour Homme
Issey Miyake Pour Homme
John Varvatos Vintage
Kilian Light My Fire, Back to Black
Korres Premium II
Le Labo Santal 33
Le Re Noir #126 Tabac du Chaman
Maison Martin Margiela Jazz Club
Maurer & Wirtz Tabac
Michael Kors Michael for Men
MiN New York Moon Dust
Parfums de Marly Herod
Parfums et Senteurs du Pays Basque La Feria
Pierre Cardin Centaure Cuir Blanc
Remy Latour Cigar for Men
Robert Graham Fortitude
Roger & Gallet Cigalia
Roja Dove Enigma
Santa Maria Novella Tabacco Toscano, Acqua di Cuba (cigar tobacco)
Serge Lutens Chergui
Sjaak Hullekes 64
Teatro Olfattivo di Parma
Thierry Mugler A*Men Pure Havane (sweet cherry tobacco)
Tom Ford Tobacco Oud, Tobacco Vanille (vanilla pipe tobacco)
Tommy Bahama Cigar
Versace The Dreamer (fresh cigarette tobacco)
Viktor & Rolf Spicebomb
Volutes Diptyque
Zara Tobacco Collection Rich Warm Addictive, Tone Indeterminee

'Masculine' Tobacco Flower Fragrances:

Atelier Segall & Barutti Le Tabac & Citrus
Avon Black Suede Leather
Banana Republic Modern 2015
Bloke Benji
Bvlgari BLV Pour Homme, Notte Pour Homme
Cherigan Fleurs de Tabac
Di Palomo Per Lui
FEN Perfumes Gentlemen's Club
Gandini 1896 Tobacco
Givenchy Play
John Varvatos Rock Volume 1
Korres Saffron Tobacco
La Martina Suerte
O Botaicario Connexion My Way
Parfumes Quartana Wolfsbane
Thera Cosmeticos Dakar
Tru Fragrances Ultimo Noir
Versace The Dreamer
Womo Black Tobacco
Xerjoff Shooting Stars Oesel

 

[churchilllafemme]

Myrrh


Myrrh is an aromatic gum resin produced by a small, thorny tree, Commiphora myrrha, that grows in shallow, rocky soil in Arabia and East Africa.

It is an oleoresin, a natural blend of essential oil and resin. Tapping to harvest the resin is done twice a year. For its harvest, incisions (taps) are made through the tree bark and into the sapwood, all the way up from the root to the highest branches strong enough to tolerate it. The tree bleeds the milky resin, which is yellowish and waxy, and it drips down the exterior bark. With exposure to air, it coagulates quickly into droplets or "tears."

After it dries in storage over a period of about 12 weeks, the gum becomes hard, reddish-brown, and glossy. It darkens as it ages, and white streaks appear. The globules, averaging about the size of a walnut, are then sorted and graded by the purchasing merchant.

Myrrh has been used for centuries as a perfume, incense, and medicine (for its antiseptic and sedative properties). In antiquity it was so highly prized that its value by weight was equal to that of gold. The oelo gum resins of a number of other Commiphora species, such as opoponax, balsam, bdellium, guggul, and bisabol, have been used in the same ways. Myrrh is mentioned in ancient Egyptian medical texts, and it was used with frankincense for embalming mixtures. The word mör or mur, from which myrrh is derived, means "bitter." The word probably comes from old Hebrew and Arabic. Myrrh has had great significance in various religions, and it has been used often in burned incense in cathedrals, thus creating for many people a lasting memory association.

Almost unscented in resin form, myrrh essential oil is extracted by steam distillation, and the absolute is made by alcohol extraction. Thus processed, myrrh has a warm, earthy, pungent, woody fragrance with an unusual, spicy 'latex' undertone, but it also is astringent, sharp, and slightly medicinal. It has been described as luminous and golden, like blend of sweet amber and pine sap. Some have said it has hints of mushrooms and licorice. Among perfumers, it has a reputation of being difficult or challenging, because it can smother other scents in a fragrance mix. But in a proper balance with other ingredients, it results in a sensual, deep, haunting character. The perfumer Calice Becker has noted that myrrh is for a perfumer like butter is for a chef, enriching other flavors. Perfumer Mandy Aftel described myrrh as smelling "warm and spicy, evolving into a sweet balsamic drydown, the last note you smell before the scent evaporates entirely."

The chemical constituents of myrrh are volatile oil, resin (myrrhin), gum, ash, salts, sulfates, benzoates, malates, and acetates of potassium. The two main aromatic factors in myrrh resin are isomers of C15H180, furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, a morphine analogue making up more than 40% of the total volume and giving it a bitter taste, and lindestrene at round 10% of the volume.

In perfumery, myrrh frequently is combined with frankincense, another resin, in compositions that often are termed 'incense fragrances.' It primarily is a base note, and it seems to work best in fragrances with coniferous, wood scents (cypress, pine, fir, etc.) in the top and middle notes because it sustains them nicely into the drydown. It complements well the brightness of oriental mixes, and it has been used very successfully in combination with licorice, vanilla, and black tea absolute.

Opoponax has a similar scent but smells somewhat sweeter, warmer, smokier, and more powdery. It often is called sweet myrrh.

Men's or unisex myrrh fragrances:

Czech & Speake Frankincense and Myrrh
Christian Dior Eau Sauvage, Bois d'Argent, Fahrenheit Absolute
Giorgio Armani Prive Myrrhe Impériale
Profumum Roma Ambra Aurea, Santalum, Olibanum, Oxiana
Fahrenheit Absolute
Ava Luxe Red Tara
Amber Precieux Ultime
Memoirs of a Trespasser
Lorenzo Villoresi Incensi
Bissoumine Souffle Sauvage
Halston Man Amber
Chanel Antaeus, Allure Pour Homme
Papillon Artisan Perfumes Anubis
Natur Milano Adorami
April Aromatics Calling All Angels
Gucci Envy for Men, Gucci Pour Homme II
Yves St. Laurent Vinyle
Amouage Memoir?, Interlude Man, Jubilation for Men
Guerlain Songe d'un Bois d'Ete, Vetiver
Robert Piguet Oud
James Heeley Eau Sacree
Messe de Minuit
Avon Mesmerize
L'Erbolario Myrrhae
Pecksniff Mistraal
Fragrance du Bois Oud Bleu Intense
Salvatore Ferragamo Terra Rossa
Acqua di Parma Note di Colonia III
Lolita Lempicka Au Masculin Eau de Parfum Intense
Keiko Mecheri Myrrh & Mervilles
Diptyque l'Eau Trois
Norma Kamali Incense
Aramis Perfume Calligraphy Rose
L`Artisan Parfumeur Timbuktu
Sonoma Scent Studio Fireside
Annick Goutal Myrrhe Ardente
Prada No. 10 Myrrhe, Amber Pour Homme
Eau d'Italie Paestum Rose, Baume au Doge
Comme des Garcons Palisander, Incense Avignon
Paco Rabanne
Serge Lutens La Myrrhe, Ambre Sultan
L'Occitane en Provence Eau d'Iparie
Oscar de la Renta Pour Lui
von Eusersdorff Classic Myrrh
Calvin Klein Obsession for Men
Crabtree & Evelyn Moroccan Myrrh
Jil Sander Sander for Men
Molinard Homme I
Carven Le Vetiver
Huitieme Art Parfums Myrrhiad
Atkinsons Amber Empire

 

[churchilllafemme]

Oud/Agarwood

Oud (sometimes spelled oudh), the Arabic word for wood, usually refers in perfumery to wood from the Agar (Aquilaria or Gyrinops) tree, an evergreen genus native to southeast Asia. It is sometimes called agar, aloeswood, gaharu, jinko, or ligne-aloes. When attacked by a common fungus (Phaeoacremonium parasitica) that decomposes its bark and branches, this tree produces an aromatic resin. The resinous agarwood occurs in the trunk and roots of the trees, where the volatile organic compounds it contains appear to suppress or retard the fungal growth. While the unaffected wood of the tree is a light, pale beige in color, the resin markedly increases the density and mass of the affected wood over the course of decades, changing its color to dark brown or black. Since only about 2-7% of trees are infected naturally by the fungus, artificial forestry methods are often used to inoculate all the trees in a chosen area with the fungus.

Natural oud products vary widely in quality depending upon geographical location, botanical species, age of the tree, and the section of the tree from which the source piece of agarwood is taken. The highest quality agarwood comes from the tree's natural immune response, while an inferior resin is produced by deliberate wounding of the tree. Once the resin is developed, it is only good for harvesting for a few months, after which the essential oil cells dry out.

Oud oil is steam-distilled from the agarwood, producing up to 20 ml of pure oil from each 70 kg of heartwood. Agarwood oil is very complex, with over 150 different compounds identified to date. Extremely expensive to obtain (costing more than $60,000 per kilogram) and considered endangered in the wild due to overharvesting, the oil has been replaced for the most part in modern products by synthetic substitutes (such as Oud Synthetic 10760E by Firmenich and Agarwood Orpur by Givaudan). There are claims that Chinese factories produce very fragrant but fake scents made of the very low-grade agarwood soaked for about a month in European synthetic oud.

Overall, oud has an animalic, earthy, oriental-woody, soft fruit-floral tone that is usually complex and dark, making it a good base for men's colognes. It has nutty, musty-earthy undertones. It is intense and pungent, and lower grades can be quite sharp. When burned in incense, it also is characterized by a sweet-balsamic note with touches of vanilla, musk, and amber. Oud is often used as a backnote for other scents in modern fragrance mixes. It pairs well with traditional oriental notes, such as rose and vanilla, as well as with modern amber and hesperidic (bright citrus) notes. Oud generally produces strong emotional responses, positive or negative. “Oud is astonishingly rare,” says Chandler Burr, the former New York Times perfume critic and author of 'The Emperor of Scent.' “It has a very particular scent, and there is nothing like it on the market. It is dark, rich and opaque.”

The scent is an ancient one that has been used in incense and perfumes for thousands of years in the Middle East and Asia, both in homes and in religious ceremonies. The International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Life Sciences states that agarwood, also known as the 'Wood of the Gods,' is mentioned as early as the third century AD in Chinese literature. Agarwood has also been used as a medicinal product, dating back at least to the eighth century.

Oud has been getting more popular in the West over the past few years. Sales of oud perfumes are strong within the niche prestige fragrance market, which is valued at over $3 billion. A 2013 report stated that total oud sales had increased by 68% over 5 years. About two-thirds of oud scents are artisanal, according to the NPD Group. Well-known commercial fragrances with prominent oud notes include:

Acqua di Parma Colonia Oud
Amouage Homage Attar
Amouage Jubilation XXV
Anya’s Garden Temple
Arabian Oud range
Armani Prive 1001 Nights Collection Oud Royal
Ayesha Ziya The Oud
By Kilian Pure Oud and Rose Oud
Byredo Oud Immortel
Christian Dior Leather Oud and Oud Ispahan
Commes des Garçons Wonderoud
Creed Royal Oud
Czech & Speake Dark Rose
Donna Karan Chaos
Ermenegildo Zegna Indonesian Oud
Guerlain Oud Sensuel
Henri Bendel Rose & Oud
Jo Malone Oud and Bergamot
John Varvatos Oud
Krigler Oud for Highness 75
L’Artisan Parfumeur Al Oudh
Le Labo Oud 27 and Rose 31
Maison Francis Kurkdjian Oud Silk Mood, Velvet Mood, and Cashmere Mood
Montale oudh range
Ormonde Jayne Ormonde Man
Ralph Lauren Polo Supreme Oud
Reiss Black Oudh
Secret Oud and Oud de Caron
Serge Lutens Cuir Mauresque
Tom Ford Noir de Noir and Oud Wood
Yves Saint Laurent M7 Oud Absolu and Splendid Wood

 

[MilkCrate]

These are great references

 

[churchilllafemme]

These are great references

Thanks, Tim.

 

[churchilllafemme]

Sense of Smell - "Nature" vs. "Nurture"

The nature vs. nurture argument is prominent in any discussion of scent preferences. Each of us has unique preferences regarding perfume smells, and it is clear that multiple factors play a role in determining them. One major view asserts that we are born with some intact predispositions toward odors, and it is clear that gender and genetic identity help to determine what scents we like, although proponents admit that preferences can change over time. The other prominent view maintains that odor preferences are for the most learned, and that we learn to like and dislike various smells based on the emotional associations we have when we first encounter them. Scientific research seems to support both view to some degree, the "nurture" view most strongly. And finally, preference differences are present in various cultures, affecting individuals in the population.

PHYSIOLOGY

Odors are represented by volatile molecules which float in the air, entering our nasal passages and settling on the mucous membrane, triggering receptors on the tips of cilia. In humans, the types of receptors appear to number between 300 and 400. Different odorants produce different patterns of receptor activity in the epithelium. These different patterns in turn produce stimulation of different ring arrays of neurons in the olfactory bulb further up the neurologic pathway. A unique signal then is sent via olfactory neurons to the primary olfactory cortex in an area the brain connected to the limbic system, which is responsible for the experience of emotions and associative memory. This seems to account for why associations between odors and emotions are readily formed. From the limbic system, olfactory information moves to the orbitofrontal cortex, where flavor also is interpreted, and then higher in the neocortex for cognitive processing.

Complicating this picture is the fact that individuals can have specific anosmias (lack of a particular smell sense), one of the most common, and the most extensively studied, being anosmia to the hormone androstenone, an inability to smell that is present in half the population. In addition, most smells have a distinct "feel," such as menthol feeling cool and ammonia feeling like burning, a dimension perceived through the trigeminal nerve. This nerve also mediates the production of tears when we slice onions and sneezes when we smell pepper. Almost all odors have a trigeminal nerve component, varying from mild to intense. Odors that do not stimulate this nerve are rare but include vanilla and hydrogen sulfide (rotten egg smell). The presence of a very strong trigeminal stimulation may explain why some odors are disliked immediately, without previous exposure.
While a certain perfume may have given fragrance notes in it, the individual body chemistries of wearers, as well as hormones, can strongly influence how it reacts on the skin. And a perfume may smell differently on the same person on different days or in different weeks, because our body chemistry is variable with time. In addition, diet can influence how a perfume is expressed on the skin and how strongly its fragrance lingers after application.

EVOLUTION

As organisms evolved from single-cell creatures to being multicellular, they developed the ability to communicate information about what was good or bad in the outside world (e.g. food vs. nonfood or prey vs. predator) to other cells in the body. This is thought to be how the senses of smell and taste evolved: the ability of an organism to be hardwired for detecting these differences is an adaptive advantage. Those organisms that are adapted to a small, specifically defined habitat are called specialists. Animals who are specialists are able to recognize predators, sometimes through subtle olfactory clues, without prior experience; this is true of a variety of vertebrate species, including birds, rodents, and fish. Those with the genetic structure to learn how to respond appropriately to a wider range of stimuli when they are encountered, without a strictly predetermined set of responses, are called generalists. Humans are generalists, able to survive by identifying and eating available foods in nearly any habitat. Both specialists and generalists exhibit, to varying degrees, olfactory neophobia, a response of caution to novel odors. Infants and young children, for example, generally react with dislike to novel smells, regardless of the emotional tone that adults use in offering them. It is only after these smells become familiar or attractive, sometimes through modeling by the adults, that children have more positive responses.

According to those who maintain that evolution has played a part in determining what smells people like and dislike, our predispositions are explained by our history as a species. We like fruity or floral smells, for instance, because plants make fruit aromas to attract seed dispersers, and we once mainly ate fruit. Flowers appeal to us, says this theory, because plants use the same molecular building blocks to make chemicals that attract pollinators and seed dispersers. And we dislike fecal, urinous, fish, and rotten odors because at some time in the distant past, such odors on an individual meant that he or she was staying in one sleeping area too long, increasing the presence of pathological bacteria and viruses. Therefore, it is claimed, an ancestor who was averse to these smells was more likely to survive and pass on their genetic alleles.

GENETICS - "NATURE"

Evolutionary biologists have found that a set of genes called the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC), a primary factor in immune system responses, helps to determine which people are attracted to each other's scents. It has been shown that two people with dissimilar MHC genes generally like each other's smells more than do two people with similar genes, which appears to be an evolutionary adaptation that discourages mating of closely-related animals. The MHC structure is a disassortative mating trait (i.e. people choose individuals who are maximally different from them in this trait, as a means of providing the greatest immunological defenses for their prospective offspring). The famous "sweaty T-shirt experiment" of Claus Wedekind in 1995, in which college-age women smelled T-shirts worn for 3 days by men without deodorant or cologne, showed that women preferred the T-shirts worn by men with MHC genes differing most from theirs.

Researchers have hypothesized that the same genes might determine partially a person's preference for certain perfumes as well, and this has been corroborated by studies. In this research, some fragrance elements, such as those related to vanilla, were preferred by a majority of study participants, while others such as vetiver were rated the lowest, but the relative preferences were neavily influenced by MHC gene pattern. The speculation is that the fragrance that people like somehow mirrors or enhances the natural body smells of others, therefore enabling the identification of a potential mate. This means that certain perfumes are preferred because they are most likely to augment an individual's body odors as a way of "advertising" his or her MHC signature. (The research is too early to assist in formulation of new fragrances, but it may be possible, after more data is available, to create scents based on genetics.)

Although there is some clear evidence of gender differences in scent preferences, there is less information on sexual orientation differences. In one study in which participants identified scent preferences for themselves and their romantic/sexual partners, analysis identified two major groups of preferred scents, musky-spicy and floral-sweet. It was shown that heterosexual men preferred musky-spicy scents for themselves and floral-sweet scents for their female partners; and in a complementary pattern, heterosexual women preferred floral-sweet scents for themselves and musky-spicy ones for their partners. Gay men and lesbians showed a mixed pattern of gender-conforming and gender-nonconforming preferences. Gay men preferred musky-spicy scents for both themselves and their partners, with these preferences stronger than those of heterosexual men. Lesbians preferred musky-spicy scents for themselves and floral-sweet scents for their partners, but less strongly than did heterosexual men.

LEARNED PREFERENCES - "NURTURE"

A second major school of thought proposes that our responses to odors are learned, that our specific personal history with specific smells gives them meaning and makes them pleasant or unpleasant to us. We experience every smell in a context (semantic, social, and physical), and that context always has some emotional content, whether weak or strong. The meaning and emotional "feel" of the context attach in our memory to the specific odor, which thereafter is interpreted according to this experience. As noted, of all our senses, olfaction is especially predisposed to association with emotional meaning because of its neuroanatomical relationships.

Studies have shown that we begin to learn the meaning of odors early in infancy (and possibly while still in the womb), due in part to the foods a mother eats during pregnancy influencing the chemical composition of her breast milk (and amniotic fluid). In utero exposure to volatile substances such as garlic and alcohol, via maternal use - but surprisingly also from paternal use, has been demonstrated to increase preferences of a child for those odors after birth. Research with newborns has shown that there is no initial preference for the smell of their own mother's breast and that a preference builds with time as the infant feeds. In the same manner, infants learn to prefer perfume smells if those smells are paired with cuddling.

If they have had no prior exposure, infants do not differentiate between odors that adults typically find pleasant or unpleasant. The typical response to most new odors was avoidance. Some research has even shown that infants can have initial responses opposite to those of adults, for example liking the smells of synthetic sweat and feces. However, it has been demonstrated that significant olfactory learning takes place early, much of it by age 3 years; and by around age eight years, most children's responses correspond to those of adults in their family or culture. It appears that first olfactory experiences are pivotal, and first associations made to an odor are difficult to undo.

In some instances, what we think an odor is shapes our response to it. In lab studies, presenting exactly the same odor stimulus, but with two different labels, one good and one bad (for example, Parmesan cheese vs. vomit), can create an olfactory illusion. The stimulus in one case is perceived as very pleasant, while in the alternate case as very unpleasant. Moreover, not only is the odor believed to be what it has been labeled, but people do not believe that the stimulus is the same when it is labeled differently, showing the power of suggestion and context in odor perception. Correspondingly, when we smell something we have never smelled before, without any labels or obvious source, we can have an immediate emotional response because what we are experiencing smells similar to previously encountered scents that we consider pleasant or unpleasant.

Examples of personal reactions to particular scents are the positive perception of perfumes with notes like vanilla or cinnamon in people with good childhood memories of baking cookies with loved ones, or immediate dislike of a perfume with hints of tobacco by someone with asthma who is reminded of past episodes of breathing difficulty when exposed to smoke.

CULTURE

Culture also plays a role in development of odor preferences. It has been claimed that there are no universally appealing or repelling odors, and there is some cross-cultural evidence for this assertion. For example, the U.S. military attempted to create a stink bomb as a crowd dispersion tool, but when their researchers tested in countries around the world a series of foul odors, including a dirty toilet smell, no odor was consistently evaluated as repelling.

The claim that differences in cultural experience of odors result in different perception of smells has been termed the "mnemonic theory of odor perception." Differences in perceived pleasantness caused by cultural influences have been studied extensively. Among odors examined in studies in the United Kingdom and in the U.S. in the 1960s and 1970s, methyl salicylate (wintergreen) was given the lowest pleasantness ratings in the U.K., while it was given the highest rating in the U.S. The most likely explanation for this is that in the U.K., the smell of wintergreen was associated with medicine, especially with rub-on analgesics that were popular during and shortly after World War II, a time when the test subjects were children. Conversely, in the U.S. the smell of wintergreen is almost exclusively the smell of candies. A similar difference has been reported for the smell of sarsparilla, which in the U.K. is a disliked medicinal odor and in the U.S. is the smell of root beer. In other studies, Germans liked the smell of marzipan, while Japanese judged it as smelling unpleasant like oil, sawdust, or bees wax. In Sherpa populations of Nepal who have never encountered seafood, fish odors are not grouped together, while in a control group of Japanese fishermen the odors were clearly grouped with each other.

We often describe a smell as sweet, but sweetness is actually a taste that we have learned to associate with the smell of sugary food. Examples of this include vanilla, strawberry, and caramel. Similarly, a sweet smell may not be associated directly with a sweet food but with a related odor compound, as demonstrated by the rose. The rose is perceived as sweet because it is related botanically to raspberries and strawberries, and the odor compounds in roses are quite similar to those in the fruits. These associations have been found in bitter, sour, and fatty tastes as well. Since different cultures experience tastes based on their regional cuisine, associations vary depending upon where one travels or lives or grows up.

And just as people have different taste palates, perfume perception and use differs between cultures that have varying historical backgrounds, geographical environments, ancestries, and other significant influences. Europeans and Americans generally have quite different fragrance preferences, with Americans wearing ones that send a message of freshness and cleanliness (as if the person has come right out of the shower and is free of body odors, the concept of "cleanliness next to godliness") and Europeans wearing ones connoting sexiness. In American ideology dating to Puritan times, those with pure bodies are thought to have pure hearts and minds. In order to maintain the image of self-control and wholesome virtue, Americans not only focus on diet and exercise, but also monitor and limit the smell of their bodies by bathing obsessively and attempting to stop perspiration. The Age of Enlightenment represented a turning point in Western olfactory culture, and it has especially influenced American culture ever since, causing a general discrediting of the sense of smell relative to the other senses. However, commercialization and social media have more recently influenced cultural odor perception, with Americans now more inclined at any given time towards the "in thing," the most popular grooming factor of the moment, with the current trend generally being one of fruitiness and sweetness. Sometimes the most popular one is the one most heavily endorsed by personalities such as models, actors, musicians, and athletes: Forbes reported that the top 10 celebrity perfumes of 2010 earned over $215 million in sales, reflecting their influence.

Asians have been shown to prefer even lighter, fruitier, and "cleaner" fragrance notes when compared to Americans, and Asians have tended to avoid strong, dominant, or edgy notes, including those that are animalic or woody. Another example is the Dassanetch people of Ethiopia, for whom the main source of income and living is cattle raising. For them the most appealing scent is that of cows; the women the women there rub butter into their breasts, shoulders, and heads, and the men coat themselves with cattle manure and wash their hands with cattle urine. In Mali, where onions are a major economic factor for the Dogons, young men and women of that group rub onions onto their bodies as perfume.

In Arab countries, perceptions and therefore perfumes are the most complex, partially because different scents are applied to different parts of the body. In the U.A.E., for example, sesame or walnut oil, with jasmine or ambergris, is applied to the hair, while narcissus and ambergris are put on the neck. Aloewood and rose are put behind the ears and on the nostrils, and sandalwood goes in the armpits. Arab men, as well as women, wear perfumes, applying them also to the palms of their hands and in their beards. However, women generally apply perfume only for special occasions and private situations, because wearing perfume in public is thought to be a sign of adultery.

Despite these population generalizations, there are regional patterns in scent preferences within countries. Studies in the U.S. have shown that when women are in the presence of a preferred scent, they are more likely to project positive feelings onto those around them, leading to attraction. AXE, the men's grooming brand, commissioned research about odor favorites among young women in 10 of the top American cities for social interaction of singles. It was found that in Chicago, which has nearly 700 bakeries and patisseries, more than any of the other cities, women preferred the sweet smell of vanilla, whereas in San Diego they favored the scents of suntan lotion and salty ocen air. Other preferences by city included:

New York - coffee
Los Angeles - lavender
Houston - barbecue
Atlanta - cherry
Phoenix - eucalyptus
Philadelphia - clean laundry
Dallas - fireplace smoke
Minneapolis/Saint Paul - cut grass

CONCLUSIONS

It is clear that like a lot of other things that make each of us who we are, the sense of smell is multifactorial and very complex, with genetic, experiential, and cultural components. And while perfume manufacturers no doubt are investing heavily in research looking at which factors are most important and which of them can be manipulated most successfully and cost-effectively, for the time being there is still a lot of room for individual exploration and experimentation.

Remember, guys, it has been known for a very long time that regardless of cultural variations, how a guy smells is the number one thing that determines whether or not someone will find him attractive.

 

[Spider]

This thread is Great!